TRANSPORT SERVICES AND ASPECTS

Car lease calculators and how to find good car lease

2010-07-08T04:04:00.000-07:00

How to calculate your rent:
Understanding the calculation of the monthly lease payment is easier to make an informed decision. Yet most of us shy away from "complicated math that lease, leaving the trader to make the payment facility.
Now let us calculate a sample lease payment based on a vehicle with an MSRP (sticker price) value of $ 25,000 and a .0034 money factor (which is usually cited as 3.4%). The lease is expected, more than three years and the estimated percentage is 55% residual.

The first step is to calculate the residual value or residual percentage of the car. You multiply the MSRP by the survival rate: $ 20,000 X .55 = $ 11,000. The car will be worth $ 13,750 at the end of the lease, so you will use: $ 20,000 - $ 11,000 = $ 9,000 This amount of $ 9,000 be used for a period of 36 months rent give us a monthly payment : $ 9000/36 = $ 250. This is the first part of the monthly payment, called the monthly depreciation expense. The second part of the monthly payment, the payment of so-called price factors, the factors of interest expense. Is calculated by adding the value recommended by the manufacturer residual number and multiplying by the factor price ($ 20,000 + $ 11,000) * 0.0034 = $ 105.4 Finally, we approximate monthly payment by adding the two figures: $ 250 + $ 105.4 = $ 355.4
In summary, the model similar to the following formula: 1 - Monthly amortization: MSRP X Depreciation per cent residual value = MSRP - residual value = depreciation on lease depreciation end of the rental / lease (a few months of the lease) = monthly depreciation

2 - Monthly fee money factors
(MSRP + Residual Value) X money factor = money factor payment
3 - Example of monthly payment:
depreciation charge+ money factor payment = monthly payment.
Remember it is a simplified calculation that does not include taxes, fees, discounts or other incentives. The calculation gives you a ballpark figure or an idea of what your lease payments for the vehicle concerned must be in rough manner.
A calculation of your lease by lease calculator gets you relieved by the stress of having to know complex formulas underlying lease used in the calculations. Simply connect a series of numbers into the calculator and hey presto! You get a detailed review of detailed payments, taxes and fees total rental. Numbers you need to get from your dealer on a lease, you are interested in include: capitalized costs for the estimated residual value at end of the lease term, the number of months in your lease and the factor of money. Make assumptions and change some numbers to see how it affects your lease payments. For example, the residual value is an "estimate" value that the vehicle will be worth at the end of the lease term. You can enter different estimates to cover different scenarios and assumptions. As a final note of caution, keep in mind that renting calculators only do calculations and check the accuracy of abstract mathematical formulas. They do not tell you if a lease is good or bad.
How to find a good car lease
Leasing has been praised as your cheapest ticket of keeping up with stay warm vehicles and industry trends. The jury is still out on leasing however: with this sort of industry equipped with hypes and short on details, it might be difficult to distinguish between authentic adoring deal and a downright up-selling exercise.
Mileage limits:
Commonly 45,000 free miles during the entire length of a lease of three years is seen to be provided by most leasing companies. This may sound good idea at first, but when you consider you'll come to 15,000 miles over a period of 12 months then you may have to reconsider of idea of staying within this limit of 3 years.Even people working from home have little trouble putting 15.000 miles on their cars.
If you exceed the mileage limit, the penalty for each mile in excess can be as high as 20 cents. This can increase rapidly during the term of your contract: approximately 4,000 additional miles per year during the three one-year lease will end up costing an additional $ 2,400 in mileage Surplus! Be realistic about your mileage needs, especially if you regularly travel long distances, before signing the contract. Consider padding the miles you expect to use because it is cheaper to hire for improvement before the signing of paying additional fees at the end of your lease.
Unscrupulous fact of Sales Tax and other hidden costs:
Capitalization of sales tax is usually done and later is added to the monthly payments but the down-sided fact is that some dealers do not mention it in advertisements of lease payment and just illuminate in small print that here monthly payment excludes "sales tax".So,be careful whilst reading the fine print for any extra, hidden costs not included in the advertised monthly payment. Similar escaped hidden charges include like, registration and title
fees.

Baic glossary of auto leasing

2010-07-08T03:30:00.000-07:00

Leasing Glossary
In order to obtain a lease very well, you need to understand leasing jargon. Read this leasing glossary to get an overview of the basics: Acquisition fee: fee charged by a leasing company to begin the lease. Not all leasing companies charge a fee to purchase, but if the departure tax of about $ 300 and rarely negotiable.

Capitalized costs: the entire sale price of the vehicle lease This also explains the tax, title, license fees, acquisition fee and Possibly optional insurance and warranty items you choose to have the lease and pay overtime Rather Than in advance.

Depreciation fee: Part of the responsibility for payment of rent per month and represents the loss in value of the car at the end of the lease. price list of vehicles with lower expected residual value at lease end is divided by the number of months in the lease to allow for depreciation. Suppose you decide to rent a vehicle with a retail price of $ 23,500. Leasing Company believes that after three one-year lease, the vehicle will be worth 35% of its original retail value, or $ 8,225. The difference, $ 15,275, divided by the number of months in the lease, 36 months, gives us the right to depreciation ($ 424)
GAP insurance: Pays off rental balanced if the vehicle is destroyed, stolen or anything.
Initial fees: All fees due at the beginning of the lease. They are usually a guarantee, acquisition costs, first monthly payment, taxes,deposit of security and title fees.

No transport allowance: The maximum number of miles a rented car can be run a year without incurring an excess mileage penalty. A typical mileage of 12,000 to 15,000 miles per year, although this is negotiable with your leasing company.

Mileage charges: A penalty that you incur if you exceed your mileage allowance on a leased car. Examples of driving costs 10-20 cents per mile excess.
Money-factor:A fractional number, such as 0.00043, used in calculating your
monthly lease payments. You can get a rough estimate of the annual
percentage rate on your lease by multiplying the money factor by 2,400. If
a dealer quotes a money factor such as 3.4 than you can get the equivalent
APR, 8.16, if you multiply by 2.4.
Residual value: the residual value of money to the leasing company says your leased vehicle is worth when the lease expires. The higher the residual value to lower monthly payments but a higher-end lease acquisition costs, if you want to keep the vehicle.
Security deposits: An initial amount of your leasing company is required at the beginning of a lease to protect against non-payment. This is usually refunded at the end of your lease.
The termination fee or Disposition fee: The amount you must pay the leasing company at the end of your lease if you decide not to buy a car.
Wear costs: additional costs to be paid at the end of the lease any wear and use a leasing company to maintain a normal.

Auto Insurance and Leasing Basics

2010-07-08T03:22:00.000-07:00

Auto Insurance and Leasing
When leasing a vehicle, it is easier to comply with the same company for auto insurance. We do not know, however, is that you may end up paying too much for your coverage and it is best to look elsewhere for lower rates. When you rent the vehicle that leads to the leasing company. They want to ensure that your investment is covered if the vehicle is damaged, totaled or stolen. In general, they want to cover the difference between what your auto-insurer pays and your outstanding leasing obligations at the time of the accident or damage. This is known as GAP, which stands for guaranteed auto protection, and is generally included in the contract. If your leasing company is called BMW Financial Services, Chrysler Financial or any other finance division of a manufacturer, then chances are your GAP insurance will be offered by the leasing company itself.
You are not required to accept GAP insurance included as part of your lease. Why pay an insurance premium if you can get the same coverage at a lower price? Invest some time shopping by comparing quotes from insurance companies, including your existing account. Ask for discounts already entitled to coverage and adjust accordingly.

Leasing Advantages Despite aggressive low-interest financing, cash-back offers and incentives offered by purchasing other automakers leading buyers, leasing numbers keep increasing over the years . Leasing is not only an attractive financial offer for most auto-consumers, but also a lifestyle choice and preference. Number of single service: Stay abreast of the latest trends in hiring is often a lifestyle choice and an economic staff. Many people are not comfortable with the idea of owning a car over a long period. They prefer to follow the latest trends in the music industry and the latest models every two to three years.
Renting a car gives you the convenience of having the latest technology and innovation of security, as an electronic stability, advanced stereo and DVD entertainment. If you are willing to relinquish ownership of the final set of wheels, that rent is the best option. Advantage # 2: Flexibility Leasing also offers purchasing purchasing flexibility: it allows you to defer the purchase decision, while using the car. You do not need to haggle with your mechanic over repair expenses for treating heavy maintenance bills or worry about a decline in assets. If you can keep the vehicle in good condition and maintained in the mileage allowance is agreed, you actually get a test for the duration of your lease. At the end of your lease, you can buy a car or simply turn the key and walk away. No questions asked.
Advantage No. 3: Cash Flow Leasing offers many advantages in the short term. It reduces your initial cash outlay, you do not have to pay a hefty gains is necessary for your car. You must pay for the depreciation of the car - the part you can use in your lease, not the entire vehicle. This translates into lower monthly payments and frees even more cash. This fund can be utilized more intelligently elsewhere than the questionable investment of owning an asset declining. If you are self employed or use your car to your work, you can write your lease as a business expense.
Advantage Number 4: Negotiating Leverage Although it may seem a bit 'unusual in this area, almost all of the lease is negotiable. If you know all the rights involved, it is possible to calculate the monthly payments, negotiate the purchase price of the vehicle at the end of the lease and contract more miles on your mileage limit. You can also shop around and compare offers from different auto-insurers to get the cheapest GAP insurance for the lease.

Make bike look the best often

2010-06-02T06:04:00.000-07:00

Want to make your bike look the best it can and restore the paint,plastic,chrome,aluminium,stainless steel to its original finish and shine?
1.Washing the bike
As with any foundation,starting right is the best way to start out.Since the motorcycle will be polished and waxed later on in full you want to get rid of all the old wax(if any),grease,dirt,grime et al.So,this is the only time you will be using harsh detergents and chemicals on your motorcycle.This is the only way to assure a good properly cleaned bike to start off from.You need something that is really goood at cleaning dirt,grease and grime away and in large quantities that you don't mind using at a low price.Since this will strip away wax,polish and similar,this is the only time you should wash your bike with this stuff.Now you need some scrubbing brushes to attack the non-painted areas that can be scratched.So,go to a local store and find some really cheap,all plastic(no metal parts),nylon bristle brushes with long handles.While you are there,grab a hand sized scrubber(all plastic as well) to scrub the sidewalls of your tires.Wash your bike now!Remember to clean that water to get all the dirt out often.It is best to start washing the parts that could be scratched with the clean water in the clean bucket then go from there doing the most dirty parts(engine) last.
2.Pre-waxing the bike
Before you start make sure you have some clean 100 percent cotton rags and 100 percent cotton buffing clothes.You can use the rags to apply and rub in the pre-wax, and then the buffing clothes to polish it out.This is the only step where it is okay to use the rags.All other steps should stick to the buffing cloths.Make sure the surface is dry and out of direct sunlight.It is fine to apply all the steps in defuse sunlight or in the garage.Start using 2-3 fingers in the cloth and rub in circular motion making sure to reapply any area that needs more on it.Keep rubbing and applying as the finger area will get dirtier as you go.
Prewax cleaner is formulated to clear the oxidation,embedded dirt,road salts,tar,airborne chemical pollutants,stains,old wax and other surface contaminants that may have built up.Pre-wax cleaners polish out minor flaws and smooth the paint surface.Apply two full coats of prewax polish.That means,apply ,wait till its dry,rub off using buffing cloth and repeat again.
3.Polishing the bike
Many people believe that polishing is the same as waxing and this is untrue.Polish adds rich polishing oils that feeds and nourish a just-cleaned finish.The polish acts like a conditioner for your finish.It eliminates minor imperfections while enhancing the gloss and adds a fresh dripping"liquid" finish look.Again using your buffing cloth add the polish using 2-3 fingers switch when the area is dirty.Wait till the polish soaks in and is dry and then buff out using a new clean buffing cloth.The polish will not really whiten as it dries but you need to wait at least10 minutes(or more) before you remove it so it can soak into the paint.Apply 2 full coats of polish.
4.Waxing the bike
The last and final step is protecting that liquid looking newly polished finish and the paint below it.That is what a good wax does,it protects all your hard work from being washed and sun faded away as well as making the paint stay as good as it can for a very long time.Again using your clean buffing cloth add the wax using 2-3 fingers, switch when the area is dirty.Wait until the wax is dry and then buff out using a new clean buffing cloth.The wax will whiten as it dries but you should wait at least 10 minutes before buffing it out.
http://www.totalmotorcycle.com/restoring.htm

transport services sector and hybrid cars

2010-04-17T06:56:00.000-07:00

The trend of energy crisis and increment in fuel price is not seen to be taken into great consideration by most people. Hybrid cars are likely to be an integral part of transport services but can it dominate the marketplace to be common among people using transport services like other cars,pickup,van,etc. Hybrid cars can indeed be collateral with the trend of energy crisis due to its merits. A hybrid car or a hybrid vehicle basically runs on two alternative sources of energy to work i.e internal combustion engine and mostly electric motors powered by electric motors. The electric motor armatures are connected across either the brake grids or supply line. The rolling locomotive wheels turn the motor armatures, and if the motor fields are now excited, the motors will act as generators.Thus produced electrical energy from the motors is dissipated as heat by a bank of onboard rheostats in dynamic braking system but regenerative braking is used on hybrid/electric automobiles to recoup some of the energy lost during stopping whereby the current produced during braking is fed back into the power supply system for use by other traction units, instead of being wasted as heat. This energy is saved in a storage battery and used later to power the motor whenever the car is in electric mode.For the reasons like- event of failure of the regenerative brake,lack of controlled braking under difficult conditions (such as in wet roads) in 2wd car ,if the battery or capacitors are already charged,in case of emergency braking,there is typically the need to control the regenerative braking and match the friction and regenerative braking to produce the desired total braking output. The GM EV-1 was the first commercial car to do this.
Reduction in air emissions of smog-forming pollutants by up to 90% can be made by hybrid vehicles and cut carbon dioxide emissions in half. Most of these vehicles are designed for commuting through cities, where there is an excessive amount of traffic to reduce the gas emissions and have a positive effect on the environment.

United states fuel consumption
The United States aspects of fuel consumption is really high and one of the major oil-consumer though South Asian countries including India and China is in rapid acceleration in this matter. Americans can be made more conscious towards oil consumption through the usage of hybrid cars ,these cars can give a basic attractive outlook replacing the buzz like discovery and usage of oil deposits in Alaska,recent discovery of oil in Mexico gulf.
People need to discard old SUV and conventional and jointly reduce nation's fuel consumption while there's a still big potential domestically for American economy with hybrids if locals like GM ,Ford could overhandle the hybrid trends.
Major hindrance
There is an impending increase in the costs of many rare materials like dysprosium used to fabricate many of the advanced electric motors and battery systems used in the manufacture of hybrid propulsion systems. Neodymium is another rare earth metal which is a crucial ingredient in high-strength magnets that are found in permanent magnet electric motors.But these sorts of all rare earth elements is imported from China which in itself may consume all rare elements domestically very soon .Quotas system in China may impound these rare earth elements supply.
Hoidas Lake project in northern Canada as well as Mt Weld in Australia are currently under developmenthowever it is not known if these sources will be developed before the shortage hits.

Is hybrid car approachable?
Though hybrid cars have lots of merits there is still matter of doubt on individual consumption on hybrid car.Transport services and aspects of people behaviour and pshycology is arduous to tackle like the feeling why should i buy new hybrid, i'm moving well with my conventional car?The already boomed conventional cars market even offers used cars at affordable level so attraction of public is greatly for this low price tag.A middle class may not afford hybrid due to its initial price variance though hybrid later is economical.Hybrid is expensive and this is the important reason on more common consumption .Moreover one may feel secure that repair charge would be lesser and availabilty of repair services more familiar and common near junkyard rather pricy car accessories and services if something has to be fixed in case of hybrid.Some people love hybrid due to secureness of gas running out problem while this may not interest other because price of gas doesn't bother him/her.It is still a matter of debate whether to stick with hybrid or conventional but latest development trends of hybrid make it approachable.
Development trend of hybrids
The Hyundai Elantra LPI Hybrid was unveiled at the 2009 Seoul Motor Show, and sales began in the South Korean domestic market in July 2009. The Elantra LPI (Liquefied Petroleum Injected) is the world's first hybrid vehicle to be powered by an internal combustion engine built to run on liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) as a fuel. The Elantra PLI is a mild hybrid and the first hybrid to adopt advanced lithium polymer (Li–Poly) batteries.The Elantra LPI Hybrid delivers a fuel economy rating of 41.9 miles per US gallon (5.61 L/100 km; 50.3 mpg-imp) and CO2 emissions of 99 g/km to qualify as a Super Ultra Low Emission Vehicle (SULEV).Hyundai has scheduled the launch of the 2011 Hyundai Sonata Hybrid by the end of 2010.

The Mercedes-Benz S400 BlueHybrid was unveiled in the 2009 Chicago Auto Show,and sales began in the U.S. in October 2009.The S400 BlueHybrid is a mild hybrid and the first hybrid car to adopt a lithium ion battery.The hybrid technology in the S400 was co-developed by Daimler AG and BMW.The same hybrid technology is being used in the BMW 7 Series ActiveHybrid, expected to go on sales in the U.S. and Europe by mid 2010.In December 2009 BMW began sales of its full hybrid BMW ActiveHybrid X6, while Daimler launched the Mercedes-Benz ML450 Hybrid by lease only.

Sales of the 2011 Honda CR-Z began in Japan in February 2010, becoming Honda's third hybrid electric car in the market.The CR-Z is scheduled to be launched in the European and North American markets by mid 2010.Honda has also scheduled the launch of the 2011 Honda Fit Hybrid by the end of 2010.

Toyota announced plans to add hybrid drivetrains to ten new hybrid models between 2009 and 2012 and expects to sell worldwide one million hybrids per year early in this decade.Two of Toyota's latest concept cars are the Prius Custom Plus Concept and the Toyota FT-CH (Future Toyota Compact Hybrid). The Prius Custom Plus is a modification of the Toyota Prius and shown at the 2010 Tokyo Auto Salon.The Custom Plus differs from the Prius by its aggressive body kit and new wheels. The Toyota FT-CH was first shown at the 2010 North American International Auto Show.[66] Compared to the Toyota Prius, the FT-CH is 22 inches shorter in overall length and less than an inch in overall width, and it is lighter in weight and more fuel efficient than the Prius. This concept is targeting a lower price range than the Prius line-up.

Volkswagen announced at the 2010 Geneva Motor Show the launch of the 2012 Touareg Hybrid, scheduled for 2011.VW also announced plans to introduce diesel-electric hybrid versions of its most popular models in 2012, beginning with the new Jetta, followed by the Golf Hybrid in 2013 together with hybrid versions of the Passat.

Other gasoline-electric hybrids already schedule for commercial sales are the 2011 Lincoln MKZ Hybrid and the Porshe Cayenne Hybrid,both for late 2010, and the Lexus CT 200h in 2011

Today most Hybrid car batteries are one of two types:nickel metal hydride, or lithium ion; both are regarded as more environmentally friendly than lead-based batteries which constitute the bulk of car batteries today. Batteries like lead acid or nickel cadmium are incredibly bad for the environment, the toxicity levels and environmental impact of nickel metal hydride batteries—the type currently used in hybrids—are much lower.Nickel-based batteries are known carcinogens, and have been shown to cause a variety of teratogenic effects.

The Lithium-ion battery has attracted attention due to its potential for use in hybrid electric vehicles. Hitachi is a leader in its development. What's more, the market for Lithium-ion batteries is rapidly expanding as an alternative to the nickel-metal hydride batteries, which have been utilized in the hybrid market thus far. In addition to its smaller size and lighter weight, lithium-ion batteries deliver performance that helps to protect the environment with features such as improved charge efficiency without memory effect. In an environment where motor vehicle requirements including lower exhaust emissions and better fuel economy are prevalent, it is anticipated that the practical use of hybrid, electric, and fuel cell vehicles will continue to increase. The lithium-ion batteries are appealing because they have the highest energy density of any rechargeable batteries and can produce a voltage more than three times that of nickel-metal hydride battery cell while simultaneously storing large quantities of electricity as well. The batteries also produce higher output (boosting vehicle power), higher efficiency (avoiding wasteful use of electricity), and provides excellent durability, compared with the life of the battery being roughly equivalent to the life of the vehicle. Additionally, use of lithium-ion batteries reduces the overall weight of the vehicle and also achieves improved fuel economy of 30% better than gasoline-powered vehicles with a consequent reduction in CO2 emissions helping to prevent global warming.

Transport services in future may be supported well by hybrid cars beating against a larger fraction of oil and gas crisis that may arise among many countries. There might be threatening moment to transport services industry due to lack of oil affordable price and crisis in next decades while Plugin hybrid is continuously thriving and perhaps it may dominate transport sector later.

Number plate solution UK

2010-02-18T03:34:00.000-08:00

http://www.carreg.co.uk/#transport-fuel.co.cc
Carreg.co.uk private number plates, over the last 20 years it has been supplying the public and the trade with some of the best car registrations and cherished number plates available in the UK. Personalised number plates database has grown over the years into one of the best in the industry with all available number plates under one roof on one website.They also have over 500 top quality private registrations in stock at any one time from the basic make your own number plates to the expensive none dated personalised number plates which may be over one hundred years old. They are said to be the most secure registration number dealers, they are members of Cherished Numbers Dealers Association, RMIF, Members Institute Registration Agents Dealers and also members of FSB and the Registration Numbers Club.They are recognised frequent buyers of DVLA registrations and DVLA registered number plates suppliers. They buy from all registration auctions around the UK and provide number plate auction information

If you can not find your ideal private plates via our database search (top left) please try their plate finder with an alphabetical list of all number plates. If you wish to sell your registration plate then visit their Number Plate Valuation page.
They are since 1988.

transportation and fuel cost cut by gas saving devices

2009-12-27T07:24:00.000-08:00

So far the outlook for gas saving devices and products has been quite grim. The major vehicle manufacturers continue to try to develop something that can work in order to make their cars more appealing to consumers. Built in fuel savings can be accomplished not with gadgets but with attention given in the areas of the design of the vehicle as well as the engine. This is because it is much easier to sale a vehicle when it has many features that consumers will be looking for. A great style of car on the outside, nice paint job, and stylish interior simply isn’t enough anymore.

It is important to note though that these big corporations with highly educated engineers haven’t found the secret to significant gas savings methods. If they were out there then they would be incorporating the design on these newer models of vehicles. That reality alone should really get consumers to wake up and see what has been taking place around them all this time. They need to stop paying for ineffective products that are being sold due to the need people have to really save some money on gas. Sure there are some ideas that have worked out well to accomplish significant gas savings.

There isn’t any reason to fully discount everything across the board. The biggest issue though are that you can’t implement them without spending far more money than you will ever save. The ends don’t justify the means and so consumers are stuck right back where they started. Here are some examples of ways you can save money on fuel costs but that are just too expensive to move forward with. There have been successful attempts to modify the calibration of the engine in some models of vehicles to save on fuel.

However, this process has to be done by a certified mechanic. The price tag is between $10,000 and $12,000 which is often more than the value of the vehicle for many individuals. You would need to keep that car for at least 12 years and be putting at least 1,500 miles on the vehicle per month during that span of time to get your investment back. The amount of fuel savings isn’t substantial enough to justify that type of investment in the vehicle. You won’t be able to get a return on it because you won’t save that much money in fuel over the course of the time you own that vehicle. Very few people keep a regularly used vehicle for that length of time. There is also the issue that if it is involved in an accident and can’t be driven you are definitely out all the money you invested in this process. It does have some value in our society though for those with a great deal of money to spend in order to use as little gas as possible.

The process has been done to many professional vehicles though including semi trucks and race cars. When you consider a semi truck generally gets about 4-7 miles per gallon you really need to maximize the fuel efficiency. In racing events every little bit of fuel you can reserve will give you an edge over the competition. For example the NASCAR drivers need to be able to evaluate when they will go in for fuel. Being able to go an extra lap over the competition can make the difference between coming in 5th and coming in 1st. Most consumers are interested in the gas saving devices for their own personal vehicles though not those used commercially or for sporting events such as racing. There are a couple of devices you can have installed inside of your vehicle that do show a very small improvement. There are accessory driver modifiers which will periodically turn off devices including the air conditioning at certain times. These can be effective if you have many accessories that will result in higher fuel costs.

There are also censors that will notify you of behaviors you engage in that can increase your fuel consumption. For example if you need to shift to a lower gear or you need to reduce your speed. This can be helpful if you want to make changes to your driving behaviors but you often need a reminder to assist you with it. You won’t be as likely to continue slipping into those older modes of behavior because you will have a constant way to remember it while behind the wheel of the vehicle. Again, both of these types of devices are extremely expensive to install. They can range from $7,000 to $15,000. There doesn’t seem to be enough of a fuel savings to warrant installing them for most people.

Perhaps there will be future car models that offer them built in when you buy them. Even so, those models of cars are going to be more expensive than what is offered without them. The manufacturer of these vehicles is going to have to pass that cost on to the person who buys it. What holds manufacturers back from doing so is that they need to have very competitive prices. There are too many different makes and models of vehicles that people can purchase. When price is a factor consumers aren’t going to pay for higher priced vehicles and so they have to balance what is practical and profitable for them into that overall equation. Based on this information, there doesn’t seem to be and affordable gas saving devices out there that would really improve your gas mileage and cut back on your expenses in this area.

It appears that if you want to make such changes you are going to have to take matters into your own hands. Researchers may be on the right track though so one day it is possible that they will come up with something both effective and affordable for the average person to purchase. Of course that doesn’t leave us with a very pretty picture right now does it? Don’t despair though as there are some things you can start doing right away to improve your gas mileage. They aren’t gimmicks or crazy ideas that someone else is going to make money off of. They are realistic approaches that you can certainly see benefits from in a short span of time. With all of the negativity out there about gas saving devices and products that just don’t work, you may be better off to put your time and money into other efforts that have been known to work rather well.

You can be sure if a really effective gas saving device does come onto the market it will be in the news, online, and people will be talking about it. In the mean time do what you can to save yourself as much money as you can. It can prevent you from being as stressed out when you see that gas gauge towards empty. A very effective method you may want to incorporate into your gas saving efforts is hypermiling. It means you will be able to change some of your behaviors, get your vehicle in top operating shape, and maximize fuel efficiency. You will also be able to monitor your progress without any gadgets. This is a proven way for you to save money without buying any type of product at all. In addition, it will help you to have a vehicle that last longer.

You won’t be needing a new one any time soon when it is well maintained. It will also help to reduce the risk of vehicle related accidents. How often do you change the oil on your vehicle? This should be a standard practice every 3,000 miles or every 3 months. Which every one you get to first is what you go with. Most places that change your oil will put a sticker on the inside of the windshield. It will tell you the date and the mileage so you can easily view that information. Having the right amount of air in your tires will help to reduce the amount of fuel you use as well. You need to check your owner’s manual to see how much pounds of pressure you should have in each of them. Too much or too little isn’t safe either so always keep a close eye on this. Get your vehicle a tune up every six months to a year as well depending on how many miles you put on it. At this time they can do a complete inspection for you.

Don’t wait until something is really wrong with your vehicle before you get it looked at. A leaking fuel injector, clogged air filter, or an old oxygen sensor won’t prevent your vehicle from operating. However, it will increase the amount of fuel you have to use in order to get around. It is more cost effective to repair or replace these items in order to save you money in the long run. By maintaining a constant speed you will use less fuel in you vehicle. It is when you accelerate and slow down all the time that you end up using more of it. If that is your style of driving then you can modify it. Stop speeding to get places on time and plan better so you can leave earlier. Instead of rushing to pass the cars in front of you set your cruise control.

This way you can stay at a constant speed. You also want to leave enough room between you and the car in front of you. This will require less breaking and so your car won’t use as much fuel to get back into motion again. Making changes to your regular routine is also a big part of hypermiling. Think about carpooling to work and for your children’s activities whenever possible. This will reduce the amount of trips you make per week in your vehicle. You also need to schedule errands and other outings so you aren’t covering the same ground over and over again. Plan when you will go to the grocery store and everything you need for a one or two week period.

This way you won’t be having to go back and forth for select ingredients to complete your meals. Hypermiling has become quite popular as a method for saving money on gas. It doesn’t require buying any type of device and most of the options are extremely affordable or cost nothing at all. An oil change generally runs about $30 which is no big deal. Other vehicle repairs are going to cost more but you still need to get them taken care of.

It is great if you can do the work on your own as you will only have to pay for the cost of the parts. When a mechanic does it for you there is also the cost of labor included. The sooner you get such repairs done though the faster you can start saving money on your gas expenses. It will also help you get more life out of your vehicle. These strategies are definitely worth looking into to see how you can benefit from them. Since they are supported by the United States government, the Environmental Protection Agency, and the Department of Public Safety that makes them very credible too in the eyes of the consumer.

Hypermiling has proven to be much more valuable for those interested in saving money on gas than various types of devices and products on the market. If you want to see how they can work for you get a tank of gas. Keep track of the mileage and how many gallons of fuel you put in. When you are out of gas determine how many miles you went on that tank of gas. When you divide that amount by the number of gallons you purchased you get the amount of miles per gallon. Now Implement one or two of the hypermiling strategies before you fill up the second time. Keep track of your miles per gallon using that same formula.

You will see some differences and hopefully that will encourage you to continue with these methods. You can also consider implementing a couple more of them to give yourself even better gas mileage. With gas prices continuing to soar, consumers are looking for every possible way to save money on it. If you take a look at what is offered you will find plenty of different gas saving devices offered. Most of them don’t seem to be very effective though. This is quite disheartening when you consider that this is a $25 million industry in 2007 alone. According to the experts, about 95% of the gas saving products offered don’t stand up to the claims they make. They also don’t make enough of a difference to justify buying them. That can be extremely disappointing but that is the reality of it. So why do so many consumers continue to buy them? First, they want to believe they work because they do want to be able to save money on their fuel costs. That is certainly understandable as we have all been affected by the high prices.

They also see so many of the products on the market that they assume they must be working or they wouldn’t be offered. This is why such products continue to sell at very high rates. Those are the consumers who aren’t taking the time to do their research before they invest in them either. They many end up purchasing several different gas saving products and devices before they finally see the big picture and how ineffective they have been. They read the testimonials with the products or see the advertisements and decide that is what they need to purchase. They are in a hurry to access it and to benefit from it. Instead they end up losing their money and being disappointed. You should always pursue a refund when such gas saving products fail to give you the results that they advertise. Some of the research conducted by Popular Mechanics has even proven that a handful of these so called gas saving devices actually end up increasing the amount of fuel that you use.

That certainly isn’t the type of result you want to get from something like this that you pay for to use in your vehicles. Therefore consumers really need to take their time choosing such products that are right for them. Take the time to read information online and see what is really going on with them. The information you get from other consumers is going to prove to be extremely valuable to you. It should carry more weight with you than the business advertisements for such products. These will be honest reviews from real people who have been in your position before. It is quite likely the information they offer will prevent you from making a purchase of that particular gas saving device.

Making a well informed decision before you invest in this type of product is very wise. You don’t want to become frustrated or disappointed due to the results you get. It is also a good idea to look for those that offer a money back guarantee. This way you will be able to get your investment back if you aren’t 100% satisfied with what you purchase. There is no argument that everyone needs to do what they can in order to save money on gas right now. But that doesn’t necessarily mean buying gas saving products is the way to go. Many consumers have been able to successfully incorporate the concepts of hypermiling to save money without any real investment. For example, simply changing your driving habits can result in a significant amount of gas being conserved.

In the end you will have to decide which gas saving methods are right for you. There are certainly many different choices that you are being offered right now. From what has been reported from reputable agencies, there aren’t really effective gas saving devices and gadgets out there to really help you. There are plenty of in depth reports online about specific products you can read. This is better than buying them and trying them out on your own. It can be frustrating paying high gas prices but be careful what you get encouraged to buy on the market during this difficult time. Your best bet is going to be to keep your car running properly and improving your driving habits.

fuel saving devices

2009-12-24T21:26:00.000-08:00

There are plenty of products on the market for consumers to chose from. Most of the time they evolve based on the needs of society. When there is a trend taking place then you will see many different products emerge that can meet the new need people have. Some of them have been around for many years but people just don’t notice them. They aren’t recognized until there is a significant need for them. Older products may change how they advertise and even change the name of the product in order to get a facelift in the public eye.

It is no secret to anyone that gas prices have continued to rise to unbelievable prices over the past couple of years. While there has been a steady increase all along, nothing has taken place like it has in the past six months. It sees like the prices at the pumps are increasing every couple of days. That has many consumers scared to death and scrambling for a solution. They aren’t making more money but continue have more expenses to cover. The more your drive your vehicle they more you are affected by these increasing fuel prices. It can be a very scary time if you already have a thin budget to work with. It may only be by a few cents but that quickly adds up to too much per gallon.

The fact that the prices tend to go up every week isn’t helping. In the end you are likely paying more money when you fill up than ever before. This has also lead to an increase in the cost of everything else. That is because it is taking more money for suppliers to get it delivered. All of that price increase is being passed on to the consumer. Trucking companies have to pay more for fuel to get supplies to lumber yards, groceries and supplies to stores, and even to transport fuel to the gas stations. They can’t stay in business if they don’t increase what they charge for such deliveries. As a result the places they are delivering materials to have to increase what they charge in order to make a profit.

This is a continuous cycle with the final consumer getting the short end of the stick. This has resulted in people traveling less and buying fewer items that aren’t essential. With very little chance that gas prices are going to drop, people are looking for alternatives. That is why business entrepreneurs are offering a variety of gas saving devices. The controversy though is that some people believe they work while others are convinced they are nothing more than a scam. There are hundreds of such products out there available and that is appealing to consumers. They are tired of paying high amounts for gas and they are willing to do all they can in order to find a way out of it.
Advertisers of such products know this and they continue to appeal to the emotions of these consumers in order to sell more of their products. Before you buy one of them you need to do your homework. You need to find out what other consumers have to say about it. You definitely don’t want to waste your time or money on something that isn’t going to be effective. There is no reason to hand over the cash until you know you are getting a legitimate product with a high level of credibility behind it. The Federal Trade Commission has issued several warnings about the use of gas saving devices. Therefore it is very important for you to be sure you know what you are paying for.

If it sounds too good to be true than more than likely it is. Don’t find out after you have paid for the product The Federal Trade Commission has tested more than 100 products on the market that claim a person can save 20% or more on their gas expenses. However, this agency wasn’t able to verify any of these products could offer those results or any significant benefit at all. You may be familiar with particular fuel saving products that have been advertised. They all fall into particular categories depending on how you use them and what methods they incorporate. Keep reading to find out reliable information on each of these categories.

One of the most popular types of gas saving devices are oil and gas additives. Chances are you have seen many of them advertised in magazines and you can find them on the shelves of the stores you frequent. If you haven’t noticed them before you should take a look for them. One thing you will notice is that they all have claims that they can provide you with better gas mileage than you get right now. Some of them claim to be FDA approved and such but that isn’t the case. It does make you wonder though why they are able to place such items on the shelves when the FDA denies approving such products. Some of these are products you pour into your gas tank when you feel up at the pump. You simply put the contents into your tank first and then continue to fuel up as you normally would.

it does take up some room it will reduce the amount of gas you have to put into it but not improve your overall miles per gallon that you will burn while operating your vehicle. There are a variety of ingredients added to your gas when you pour such an additive into your gas tank. They include tin, magnesium, and platinum which these marketers will tell you is good for removing compounds that settle into the bottom of your gas tank. Never use a fuel additive that contains acetone as it can damage plastic parts in your fuel system by dissolving them. Some individuals claim that a small amount of acetone won’t harm your fuel system but it can be hard to gauge when you have gone over that amount.

Also, it really hasn’t been proven to help cut back on the cost of gas so that is quite a risk to be taking. In general, these additive products won’t harm your vehicle but generally aren’t necessary to add. Such gas saving products are marketed in a way to give you the impression that you are getting something your gas tank needs to be more efficient. That is the key selling point and many consumers take the bait. They go out and buy several bottles of this additive and keep it in their vehicle. Each time they approach the pump to fill up they dump a bottle of it in there thinking they are doing the right thing. However, doing so really isn’t necessary. This is because gasoline has ingredients in it that will naturally do the same thing without you adding anything. Even though these fuel additives are very reasonably priced they still seem to be a waste of money as they haven’t been proven to be effective. The gas you have to pay for to move your vehicle is already taking care of the same concerns so why pay for something you don’t need? Those that are offered for the oil generally come already mixed in the oil for your car. You just add it like you would any other brand or type of oil. It is important that you always use the right grade of motor oil in order to get the most fuel mileage from your vehicle. You can find this information in your owners’ manual as well as on the internet. The understanding of gas savings behind these oils is that the lower velocity that is present the less friction will be created. However, you can really do severe damage to your vehicle if you are using something other than what it requires. You may end up needing to replace your entire engine before it is all said and done. Some testing has shown changing the velocity of the oil doesn’t seem to affect the operations of certain vehicles.

As a consumer though you have to ask yourself if you are willing to take the chance that such a product may damage your vehicle. Most people will agree it isn’t something they want to risk being on the losing side of. There doesn’t seem to be a good reason to take that risk either. There hasn’t been any substantial evidence to suggest oil additives are going to increase your gas mileage. Yet these are very popular products that people continue to buy and place into their vehicle. Oil and gas additives aren’t very expensive and you can generally buy them at any location that sales automotive products. Most full stores offer oil, filters, and these various additives so you can get all the supplies you need for the maintenance of your vehicle at one time. You may be tempted to buy such products that you see on the shelves while you are buying the other items you need. However, you need to be careful about what you put into your vehicle. It could end up doing more damage than good.

You can read reviews about specific products out there online so it is a good idea to do so before you go ahead and purchase any of them Magnets are quite interesting because they have the ability to attract and repel due to the energy they create. We can all probably remember science experiments in school that dealt with magnets. They were actually very fun to play with and to see what they could do. Magnets of all different sizes are used in our society for a variety of things. We use them to keep things on the refrigerator, to search for items, and to operate various types of devices. Many people view magnets as something scientific though so they assume it may be logical to try using them to save money when it comes to fuel costs. Many consumers like this idea because they aren’t adding anything to their vehicle in the form of a liquid which often makes them worried.

The magnets can be added or removed any time you feel like it. They like the thought of being able to get results without the risk of ruining some part of their engine. There is also the fact that you don’t have to remember to buy them all the time. With additives you need to get a good supply of them and then remember to use them at the right times. With the magnets you can simply put them on once and then not worry about it again. Magnets that are offered for reducing the amount of gas that your car uses will cost you between $15 and $40 so that isn’t too much of an overall investment. They can improve your gas mileage ever so slightly but not enough that you will get any real savings out of it. We are talking 10th of a gallon when it comes to measuring the benefits. These magnets are secured to the fuel line and are believed to change the molecular structure of the gasoline. As a result the types of metals that are used to ionize the fuel will no longer be there.

This may all sound good in theory but the reality is that it doesn’t do anything for your gas mileage that is significant enough for you to save any money. Magnetic gas saving products often have the biggest claims when it comes to how much gas you can save. Many of them boost about a savings of 20% -25% but the testing on such products hasn’t shown hardly any benefit at all, let alone something that substantial. There is a popular TV show called MythBusters where they take certain products and test them out to see what the results are. They did a show about the use of magnets to increase fuel mileage a while back. You can see parts of it on their website if you missed it. Several different brands of magnets advertised for saving gas were tried out but the results were similar with all of the ones they tried. They were able to control the variables and tried the use of the magnets under a variety of different conditions. They didn’t find them to be difficult to put on the vehicle or to remove. They also didn’t find them to offer any significant benefit in the area of gas mileage from them.

So the best bet is to skip these types of gas saving devices and use your money for something else. Many of the gas saving devices on the market right now fall into the category of a vortex generator. The name of it sounds like something very fancy and that would be complicated to work with. Once you understand the concept of it though it is easy to see how people would assume it could help cut down their use of gas. This allows there to be air mixed between the air cleaner and the intake manifold. The process resembles a tornado but on a much smaller scale. There isn’t anything type of additive with various ingredients being added to your vehicle which makes consumers happy. Since there is an unlimited supply of air nothing has to be added to it later on either. These products claim to work by mixing more air with the gas in your vehicle than what is normally found in it. This is to allow it to burn cleaner when it enters the combustion chamber. Yet what you will find is that your speed is reduced due to this method and so that can result in gas being saved.

For those that drive over 60 miles per hour the most savings will be evident. However, if you plan to be taking that vehicle on a highway with a speed limit of 75 miles per hour you will have a hard time getting to that speed as well as maintaining it. Your vehicle may start to run sluggish which can mean something with it isn’t being properly operated like it should.Your vehicle will have to work very hard and that can result in more wear on it. If you have to slow down or stop often it will also reduce fuel efficiency. When you consider the distance a person may travel for fun or to get back and forth to work at those higher speeds it can really be a recipe for disaster for our vehicle. Some of the air injection products offered claim that they can create more heat, and that reduces friction. As a result of less friction there is less fuel consumed. It is said that there is less work for the liquid gas to be changed into a vapor. The understanding of this particular technique is complex to many people. Therefore they don’t look into it any further. What is often ironic about gas saving devices and products is that is seems the more complicated they are to understand the more people invest in them. The general consensus of this is that it must be some scientific formula that will work and so it doesn’t matter if the consumer understands it or not. Well, you can be sure that the manufacturers and the marketers know this. If the gas saving device is too simple then it won’t hold water with most people. Add some tricky terms though and a process that is complex to follow and it will seem logical in many ways.

After all not everyone knows ways to save money on gas so they may be on to something. Regardless of if you understand what that process entails or not, the testing that has been done on many products by professional organizations shows they don’t really work. There isn’t enough significance with that process to allow you to save money on your gas expenses. You need to get the name of the particular product you are interested in and do your own research on it as well. Chances are there have been reviews of it from individual consumers. You will also find those done by experts that aren’t biased one way or the other. They call it as they see it simply by monitoring their gas mileage before and after using it on a particular vehicle. All of the data that they use is recorded and shared so there isn’t any secret about how they derived at their final report on things.

It is hard to argue with such testing methods when you can see they have done every single step by the book and not gotten the promised results with the given product. One of these testing gurus is Popular Mechanics. They are well known for offering information and advice about various types of vehicles. They stay on top of current issues and events including high gas prices. They aren’t about to allow their loyal readers to be taken for a ride to listen to what they have to say. There are many air injection products for gas saving offered on the market. Yet according to Popular Mechanics many of them never even get around to actually adding more air to the fuel like they claim. They believe it just isn’t possible for this to really take place with the design of the vehicles system. This is due to the fact that there is likely to be too much space between where they air intake is and where the fuel is mixed. It doesn’t really matter which type of vehicle you are driving around in, this set up is standard. You can have it modified which will cost you a great deal of money Testimonials are a sure fire way to motivate people to buy what you have for sale with any type of product.

You will find that many gas saving devices feature such testimonials from very satisfied consumers. Before you let this make the decision to buy them for you there are a few things you need to know. While these testimonials may be real, they often don’t show the entire story. For example someone may start their testimonial letter out by saying they got an addition 5 miles per gallon from their car as soon as they started using the product. That is a legitimate claim they have made. Yet the company doesn’t include all of the information that was provided, jus the part that really gets the attention of the reader. That letter may have gone on to say how they have gotten their car repaired and tuned up. It can also contain information on how they are driving differently. Those additional factors are likely a big part of what is allowing them to get an addition 5 miles per gallon. So it isn’t just that they started using a particular gas saving device and it make that huge impact for them. There is no way for a consumer to know the rest of the story from what is written. There is nothing you can do about this marketing method either. Since they aren’t lying about what the consumer said they can’t be fined or face any repercussions. There is no law that says they have to print the entire testimonial. They just have to be from real people and be in the same words as what was originally written by the person. So So they can begin with the beginning, middle, or end of a particular testimonial. They take the pieces they want and leave the rest of it.

Therefore I caution you to put too much credibility behind the testimonials that are offered for such products. There may be some truth to them but remember that they only publish what they want you to see in regards to their product. All those letters they get that are complaints never will be part of their advertising either. Those people may get a refund or nothing at all. You may be able to find the discontent though with various gas saving products by reading information online. People are very willing to share their experiences in such areas with others so that they won’t fall into the same trap. This can save you money so pay attention to the information that can be accessed with any search engine. You also need to understand that what may work well for one vehicle isn’t right for another. It is the same concept that applies to products such as medications and even diet pills. There are plenty of people who claim to get results but for the majority of the population they aren’t effective enough to make a difference. This is due to the fact that each vehicle has significant variables. Even the same exact make, model, and year of a vehicle may have different gas mileage associated with it. The way in which the car is cared for and the driving habits of those who use it also have to be taken into consideration.

Quality global transportation service

2009-11-02T06:27:00.000-08:00

Mosaic Global Transportation Wins Silicon Valley Philanthropy award.Mosaic Global Transportation is the official transportation company for:Stanford Jazz Workshop,CityFlight Magazine,Ronald McDonald House, Palo Alto Mosaic global transportation offer you ground transportation and concierge services in cities around the world! Please contact us at 1-800-398-7881 or send a fax to 650-473-9810 and let us know about your specific transportation needs to any of the following cities:
North America

1.Akron,OH
Albany, NY
Amarillo, TX
Anaheim, CA
Anchorage, AS
Aspen, CO
Atlanta, GA
Atlantic City, NJ
Austin, TX
Baltimore, MD
Bedford, MA
Bethesda, MD
Billings, MT
Biloxi, MS
Binghamton, NY
Birmingham, AL
Bismarck, ND
Boise, ID
Boston, MA
Bridgeport, CT
Buffalo, NY
Burlington, VT
Calgary Albert, CN
Canton, OH
Cape Canaveral, FL
Charleston, WV
Charleston, SC
Charlotte, NC
Chicago, IL
Cincinatti, OH
Cleveland, OH
Columbus, OH
Concord, NH
Dallas, TX
Dayton, OH

Daytona Beach, FL
Dearborn, MI
Denver, CO
Detroit, MI
Durham, NY
El Paso, TX
Erie, PA
Fall River, MA
Flagstaff, AZ
Fort Myers, FL
Fort Lauderdale, FL
Fort Worth, TX
Fort Wayne, IN
Fresno, CA
Grand Canyon, AZ
Grand Rapids, MI
Green Bay, WI
Harrisburg, PA
Hartford, CT
Honolulu, HI
Houston, TX
Indianapolis, IN
Ithaca, NY
Jacksonville, FL
Kansas City, MO
Kauai, HI
Knoxville, TN
Lancaster, PA
Lansing, MI
Las Vegas, NV
Lexington, KY
Little Rock, AR
Los Angeles, CA
Louisville, KY

Maui, HI
Memphis, TN
Miami, FL
Milwaukee, MN
Minneapolis, MN
Mobile, AL
Monterey, CA
Montgomery, AL
Montreal, CN
Nashville, TN
New Haven, CT
New Orleans, CA
New York City, NY
Newark, NJ
Newport Beach, CA
Norfolk, VA
Oakland, CA
Oklahoma City, OK
Omaha, NE
Orlando, FL
Ottawa, CN
Palm Springs, CA
Pensacola, FL
Philadelphia, PA
Phoenix, AZ
Pittsburgh, PA
Portland, OR
Portland, ME
Providence, RI
Raleigh, NC
Richmond, VA
Rochester, MN
Rochester, NY
Sacramento, CA
San Antonio, TX

San Diego, CA
San Francisco, CA
San Jose, CA
San Rafael, CA
Santa Ana, CA
Santa Barbara, CA
Santa Clara, CA
Santa Cruz, CA
Sarasota, FL
Savannah, GA
Seattle, WA
Sioux City, IA
South Bend, IN
Springfield, IL
Springfield, MA
Stamford, CT
Syracuse, NY
Tallahassee, FL
Tampa, FL
Topeka, KS
Toronto, CN
Tucson, AZ
Utica, NY
Vail, CO
Vancouver BC, CN
Vancouver, CN
Virginia Beach, VA
Waco, TX
Washington, DC
West Palm Beach, FL
White Plains, NY
Wichita, KS
Wilmington, DE
Winston-Salem, NC

INTERNATIONAL

Aberdeen, Scotland
Adelaide, Australia
Amman, Jordan
Amsterdam, Netherlands
Ankara, Turkey
Athens, Greece
Bangkok, Thailand
Bangalore, India
Barcelona, Spain
Beijing, China
Bern, Switzerland
Budapest, Hungary
Buenos Aires, Argentina
Barbados, West Indies
Brussels, Belgium
Buenos Aires, Argentina
Cairo, Egypt
Calcutta, India

Cannes, France
Caracas, Venezuela
Copenhagen, Denmark
Dublin, Ireland
Edinburgh, Scotland
Frankfurt, Germany
Helsinki, Finland
Innsbruck, Austria
Jakarta, Indonesia
Lisbon, Portugal
London, England
Madrid, Spain
Manila, Philippines
Melbourne, Australia
Mexico City, Mexico
Milan, Italy
Moscow, Russia
Mumbai, India

Munich, Germany
Osaka, Japan
Oslo, Norway
Paris, France
Rio De Janeiro, Brazil
Rome, Italy
Santiago, Chile
Sao Paolo, Brazil
Seoul, Korea
Shanghai, China
Stockholm, Sweden
Sydney, Australia
Taipei, Taiwan
Tokyo, Japan
Victoria, Hong Kong
Vienna, Austria
Warsaw, Poland

Mosaic Global Transportation Service is available to coordinate and provide the following chauffeured services 24 hours a day - 7 days a week.
Airport Ground Transportation
Corporate Group Transportation
Managed Shuttle Services
Private Tours
Special Events
On-Site Coordination
Conventions
City Tours
Wine Tours
Hospitality Service
Concierge Service
Any other Client-Directed Services
From the time red carpet rolls out, to the last, satisfied guests departure, the events success is singular goal. Clients such as US Tobacco, HP, The Garden Court Hotel and American Honda choose us for the same reasons a small wedding party would; delivering beautiful vehicles, that are safe, well maintained and OnTime, everytime. Some of the services that are provided or coordinated are:

Corporate Events
Arrival & Departure Services
Decor & Props Selection
Hotel Selection
Logistics Planning
Meeting Coordination
On-site Event Management
Photography
Tours
Transportation
Professional Greeters

University Functions
Fundraisers
Homecoming

Holiday Parties

Restaurant Dine-A-Rounds

Company Picnics

Golf Tournament Events

School Events
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Winter or Spring Balls

Transportation system in US and its significance

2009-11-02T05:33:00.000-08:00

Transportation in the United States is facilitated by road, air, rail, and water networks. The vast majority of passenger travel occurs by automobile for shorter distances, and airplane for longer distances. In descending order, most cargoes travel by railroad, truck, pipeline, or boat; air shipping is typically used only for perishables and premium express shipments.

Roads accessible to the public are generally owned and maintained by the federal, state or local governments, though there are some private highways. The overwhelming majority of roads are maintained by state and local governments; the federal government directly maintains only roads on federal lands and at federal facilities (like military bases). However, many state highways, including those designated as part of the Interstate Highway System, are federal-aid highways funded by the federal government, which raises funding through its ability to impose uniform fuel and income taxes across the nation, and then exercises its powers under the federal Constitution's Spending and Commerce Clauses to disburse funds back to the states for the construction and maintenance of a uniform nationwide highway system.

There are both public and private owners of the country's many passenger and freight rail systems, bus systems, water ferries, and dams. Civilian airlines are all privately owned and financed. Many airports are owned and operated by local governments, but there are also smaller private airports. The Transportation Security Administration has provided security at most major airports since 2001.

The United States Department of Transportation and its divisions provide regulation, supervision, and funding for all aspects of transportation, except for customs, immigration, and security, which are the responsibility of the United States Department of Homeland Security. Each state has its own Department of Transportation, which builds and maintains state highways, and depending upon the state, may either directly operate other modes of transportation or may merely supervise the operation of such systems.

Aviation law is almost entirely a federal matter, while automobile traffic laws are enforced by state and local police. Economic jurisdiction over the tidelands is shared between the state and federal governments, while the United States Coast Guard is the primary enforcer of maritime law and security.

In comparison to most of the Western world, the United States relies much more heavily on its roads both for commercial and personal transit. Car ownership is nearly universal except in few of the largest cities where extensive mass transit systems have been built.

With the creation of the Eisenhower Interstate Highway System in the 1950s, both long-distance trips and daily commutes became dominated by private automobile usage. This network of freeways meets federal standards and receives substantial federal funding and is particularly well-developed. The entire system, as of 2004, has a total length of 46,837 miles (75,376 km), making it both the largest expressway system in the world and the largest public works project in US history.

The Interstate system is a part of a larger National Highway System, comprising 160,000 miles (256,000 kilometers) of roadway, a fraction of the total mileage of roads. The system serves nearly all major US cities. Many Interstates pass, sometimes with controversy, through downtown areas. The distribution of virtually all goods and services involves Interstate highways at some point. Residents of American cities commonly use urban Interstates to travel to their places of work. The vast majority of long-distance travel, whether for vacation or business, uses the national road network;of these trips, about one-third (by the total number of miles driven in the country in 2003) utilize the Interstate system.

In addition to the routes of the Interstate system, there are those of the US Highway system, not to be confused with the above mentioned National Highway System. These networks are further supplemented by the individual networks of State Highways, and other jurisdictional highways such as those of counties, municipal streets, or federal agencies like the Bureau of Indian Affairs. Altogether there are more than 4,209,835 km of paved roads in the U.S. (including 75,040 km of expressways), and 2,255,964 km of unpaved roads.

All highways are maintained by state governments, although they receive federal aid to build and maintain freeways signed as part of the 46,000 mile (75,000 km) nationwide Interstate highway network. A large number of expressways are actually government-operated toll roads in most East Coast and Midwest states. West Coast freeways are generally free to users (no toll charged per use), although since the 1990s there have been some small experiments with toll roads operated by private companies.

After the collapse of the I-35W Mississippi River bridge in Minnesota in August 2007, the backlog of road and especially bridge maintenance across the country became a prominent political issue.
Intercity bus

Greyhound Lines is the largest intercity bus company in the United States, with routes in all parts of the continental U.S.. There are also many smaller regional bus companies, many of which use the terminal and booking facilities provided by Greyhound. The bus is, in most cases, the least expensive way to travel long distances in the United States.
The United States has advanced air transportation infrastructure which utilizes approximately 5,000 paved runways. In terms of passengers, seventeen of the world's thirty busiest airports in 2004 were in the U.S., including the world's busiest, Harts-field-Jackson Atlanta International Airport. In terms of cargo, in the same year, twelve of the world's thirty busiest airports were in the U.S., including the world's busiest, Memphis International Airport. Private aircraft are also used for medical emergencies, government agencies, large businesses, and individuals, see general aviation).

Due to the size of the United States and the generally large distance between major cities, air transportation is the preferred method of travel for trips over 300 miles, such as for business travelers and long distance vacation travelers. For cities closer together, such as Boston and New York City, New York and Washington D.C., and Philadelphia and D.C., air travel does not carry a majority of intercity traffic.

Most roads are free to drive on in a privately purchased or rented automobile or in a hired taxicab, but there are also some toll roads and toll bridges. Most other forms of transportation charge a fee for use.

Government funding of transportation exists at many levels. Federal funding for highway, rail, bus, water, air, and other forms of transportation is allocated by Congress for several years at a time. The current authorization bill is the Safe, Accountable, Flexible, Efficient Transportation Equity Act: A Legacy for Users (SAFETEA-LU), which runs from 2005 to 2009. A Congressionally chartered committee is considering future funding issues.

Though earmarks are often made for specific projects, the allocation of most federal dollars is controlled by Metropolitan planning organizations (MPOs) and state governments. Usually "matching" funds are required from local sources. All projects have a sponsoring agency that will receive the funding from the various federal and local sources, and be responsible for implementing the project directly or through contracts. Large projects require a Major Investment Study and a both a Draft and a Final Environmental Impact Review. A patchwork of federal laws and accounts govern the allocation of federal transportation dollars, most of which is reserved for capital projects, not operating expenses. Some roads are federally designated as part of the National Highway System and get preferential funding as a result, but outside of Washington D.C., are not owned by the federal government.

State governments are sovereign entities which use their powers of taxation both to match federal grants, and provide for local transportation needs. Different states have different systems for dividing responsibility for funding and maintaining road and transit networks between the state department of transportation, counties, municipalities, and other entities. Typically large cities are responsible for local roads, finances with block grants and local property taxes, and the state is responsible for major roads that receive state and federally designations. Many mass transit agencies are quasi-independent and subsidized branches of a state, county, or city government.
Economic impact

According to the U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT): "Transportation’s vital importance to the U.S. economy is underscored by the fact that more than $1 out of every $10 produced in the U.S. gross domestic product is related to transportation activity. This includes all aspects of transportation, including the movement of goods and the purchase of all transportation-related products and services as well as the movement of people." Employment in the transportation and material moving industry accounted for 7.4% of all employment, and was the 5th largest employment group in the United States.
Environmental impacts

Two-thirds of U.S. oil consumption is due to the transportation sector. The “Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007” has a significant impact on U.S. Energy Policy.The US — an important export country for food stocks — will convert 18% of its grain output to ethanol in 2008. Across the US, 25% of the whole corn crop went to ethanol in 2007. The percentage of corn going to biofuel is expected to go up. In 2006, U.S. Senators introduced the BioFuels Security Act.

Scope of the American Transportation System
America's transportation network is an important tie binding our economy together. Our strong and efficient transportation system provides businesses with access to materials and markets, and provides people with access to goods, services, recreation, jobs, and other people.

Transportation contributes 11 percent of the Nation's gross domestic product, amounting to approximately $950 billion.
The U.S. transportation system carries over 4.7 trillion passenger miles of travel and 3.7 trillion ton miles of domestic freight generated by about 270 million people, 6.7 million business establishments, and 88,000 units of government. Rail and maritime transportation each account for over 11 percent of the tonnage carried.

American Modes of Travel
The U.S. transportation system includes the various modes of travel: highways, transit, rail, air, and water. Following are brief descriptions of each.

Highway System
The United States highway network consists of 4 million miles of roads and streets. Traffic congestionHighway bridges also make up a critical link in the Nation's infrastructure. At present,there are about 600,000 bridges on the entire highway network. State and local governments control most roads and bridges in the United States, but all highways serve as part of an integrated national network.

The Interstate Highway System accounts for only 1 percent of all highway mileage but carries 25 percent of the total vehicle miles of travel. With the completion of the Interstate System in the 1980s, the focus shifted toward maintaining and improving the system, improving traffic flow, and upgrading connections with other modes of transportation.

Transit (Public Transportation)
The U.S. transit system includes a variety of multiple-occupancy vehicle services designed to transport Transit Mapcustomers on local and regional routes. These services are operated by more than 5,000 public transportation systems throughout the United States and include rail, road, and water modes. Currently, the public transportation fleet comprises 129,000 vehicles in active service, of which 58 percent are buses, 26 percent are demand-responsive vehicles, 8 percent are heavy rail cars, 4 percent are commuter rail cars, 1 percent are light rail cars, and 3 percent are all other transportation modes. In 1998, Americans made 8.7 billion passenger trips on public transportation, with 61 percent of the trips on buses, 27 percent on heavy rail, and 8 percent on commuter and light rail.

Passenger Railroads
Train wheel on a track .The advent of relatively inexpensive air travel in long-distance markets and the widespread availability of the private automobile for shorter trips generated new travel patterns and drew passengers away from railroad travel. Following nearly a century and a half of intercity passenger operations by private freight railroads, the Rail Passenger Service Act of 1970 established The National Railroad Passenger Corporation (popularly known as Amtrak). Since its founding, Amtrak rebuilt rail equipment and benefited from significant public investment in track and stations, particularly in the Northeast Corridor.

Aviation
Airplane Air travel is the fastest growing mode of transportation, becoming ever more popular and frequent. The growing pervasiveness of air travel can be seen by the increasing numbers of people who have flown on a commercial jet: less than 50 percent in 1975 compared with more than 80 percent today.

Maritime Shipping
Maritime shipping has generally been intermodal; other forms of transportation are needed to haul cargo to and from ports. The U.S. maritime transportation system consists of waterways, ports and their connections to other transportation modes, vessels, vehicles, and system users.

fuel hose famous international suppliers in UK

2009-11-01T22:47:00.000-08:00

Fuel hoses are available from a wide range of car, boat and truck part stores. Make sure to purchase the exact fuel hose for your vehicle. Each type of vehicle has a different length hose and the diameter of the hose itself varies between vehicle manufacturers. Review the product manual provided with your vehicle and read the schematics to gain an understanding of where the fuel hose is, its proximity to other equipment within the engine and the distance the hose runs.

Any damage to a fuel hose will result in fuel leakage, a gasoline smell in the vehicle and very sluggish engine response. If you suspect a fuel hose issue, take your vehicle to a licensed mechanic to diagnose the problem. There are many possible causes for poor engine performance and it is important to obtain the correct information before attempting to repair the vehicle.

If you need to replace a fuel hose, it is important to complete all the necessary safety precautions when dealing with gasoline. Ensure the space is well ventilated, have a fire extinguisher handy and disconnect the battery before you begin. Never forget that gasoline is designed to combust and can cause a great deal of damage.

Purchase the new fuel hose from your local automobile supplier and read through your maintenance manual before you begin for any special instructions. Loosen the metal clamps that secure the fuel hose at one end. Have a bucket close by and then undo the other side. Catch any excess gas that was in the fuel hose in the bucket. Put the old hose in the bucket for disposal later. Here i have listed UK's 2 very famous high quality fuel hose suppliers.

Holmes Hose limited, UK ,Moston road , Sandbach, cheshire ,since 1980 it has been specialising in the supply of custom hoses and fittings particularly for the mining/offshore industries. They stock and manufacture a wide range of industrial rubber and PVC hose assemblies. Flexible hoses and assemblies are used for a wide variety of purposes in modern industry. Its aim is to hold extensive stocks to supply these demands, or to manufacture hose and deliver at short notice.

As experienced producers of hose, with considerable know how in the field, they claim to save you time & money. They offer a range of installation services and products some of which are detailed below:

Oil & Marine Hoses - Suction and discharge of oil products, storage and transport offshore and onshore. Full fitting service, built in ends, internal/external swaging. Testing and certification.

Industrial Hoses - Ex Stock Service - Air, Water, Irrigation & Drag, Chemical, Oil, Fire, Mining, Abrasive, Shotblast, Brewers, Dairy, Steam, PTFE, Stainless, Hydraulic, Concrete Pumping, Cable Protection and PVC.

Hypose Ltd. is a ISO 9001:2008 and MOD approved company, founded in 1980, with branches in POOLE, SOUTHAMPTON and PORTSMOUTH as well as a fleet of mobile ON-SITE REPAIR SERVICE VANS.

OILPRESS N/L 20 - 30

Hose Construction:

Tube: Smooth, black, oil and fuel resistant NBR rubber compound, suitable for petroleum products
with aromatic content not exceeding 50%

Reinforcement: Synthetic textile yarns

Cover: Smooth, black, self-extinguishing, antistatic (R <>

Applications: Suitable for multi-purpose applications requiring transfer
of many types of fluids and for petroleum products with aromatic content not exceeding 50%.
The light-weight (L) construction is recommended for light-duty or personalised applications.

Temperature Range: -30°C (-22°F) to +100°C (+212°F), with peaks +120° (+248°F)

SMOOTH COVER FUEL HOSE

Hose Construction:

Tube: Black, oil and fuel resistant, smooth, antistatic (R <> Cover: Black, oil, fuel, abrasion, weather-resistant, smooth, antistatic (R <> NBR/EPDM rubber compound

Reinforcement: Synthetic textile yarns

Applications: Designed for general applications in fuel systems where low permeability
levels are required. Suitable for leaded and unleaded fuels and diesels.

Temperature Range: -30°C (-22°F) to +100°C (+212°F)

POLYESTER COTTON COVER FUEL HOSE

Hose Construction:

Tube: Black, oil and fuel resistant, smooth NBR rubber compound,
ensuring optimum permeability with different fuel types

Cover: High tensile polyester textile overbraid, resistant to abrasion, fuel, oil and weathering

Applications: Specially designed for particular applications in fuel systems
where textile cover is requested.
Suitable for leaded and unleaded fuels and diesel.

Temperature Range: -20°C (-4°F) to +90°C (+194°F)

SO 7840 FUEL HOSE (WITH CE MARKING)

To meet the latest European Directive for pleasure craft fitted with inboard engines,
flexible fuel lines are required to meet stringent fire testing as part of the ISO Approval.
Our fuel hose exceeds these requirements as well as conforming to
International standards, e.g. USCG, SAE, ABYC, NMMA, etc.
Manufactured using a 'Barrier Nylon Liner' to prevent fuel permeation even of
alcohol blends, it's superior construction and good flexibility make it an ideal
choice for engine installations.

What is a fuel pump?

2009-10-31T22:36:00.000-07:00

A fuel pump is a frequently (but not always) essential component on a car or other internal combustion engined device. Many engines (older motorcycle engines in particular) do not require any fuel pump at all, requiring only gravity to feed fuel from the fuel tank through a line or hose to the engine.
But in non-gravity feed designs, fuel has to be pumped from the fuel tank to the engine and delivered under low pressure to the carburetor or under high pressure to the fuel injection system. Often, carbureted engines use low pressure mechanical pumps that are mounted outside the fuel tank, whereas fuel injected engines often use electric fuel pumps that are mounted inside the fuel tank (and some fuel injected engines have two fuel pumps: one low pressure/high volume supply pump in the tank and one high pressure/low volume pump on or near the engine).

Prior to the widespread adoption of electronic fuel injection, most carbureted automobile engines used mechanical fuel pumps to transfer fuel from the fuel tank into the fuel bowls of the carburetor. Most mechanical fuel pumps are diaphragm pumps, which are a type of positive displacement pump. Diaphragm pumps contain a pump chamber whose volume is increased or decreased by the flexing of a flexiblediaphragm, similar to the action of a piston pump. A check valve is located at both the inlet and outlet ports of the pump chamber to force the fuel to flow in one direction only.

Specific designs vary, but in the most common configuration, these pumps are typically bolted onto the engine block or head, and the engine's camshaft has an extra eccentric lobe that operates a lever on the pump, either directly or via a pushrod, by pulling the diaphragm to bottom dead center. In doing so, the volume inside the pump chamber increased, causing fuel to be drawn into the pump from the tank.

The return motion of the diaphragm to top dead center is accomplished by a diaphragm spring, during which the fuel in the pump chamber is squeezed through the outlet port and into the carburetor. The pressure at which the fuel is expelled from the pump is thus limited (and therefore regulated) by the force applied by the diaphragm spring.The carburetor typically contains a float bowl into which the expelled fuel is pumped. When the fuel level in the float bowl exceeds a certain level, the inlet valve to the carburetor will close, preventing the fuel pump from pumping more fuel into the carburetor.

At this point, any remaining fuel inside the pump chamber is trapped, unable to exit through the inlet port or outlet port. The diaphragm will continue to allow pressure to the diaphragm, and during the subsequent rotation, the eccentric will pull the diaphragm back to bottom dead center, where it will remain until the inlet valve to the carburetor reopens.Because one side of the pump diaphram contains fuel under pressure and the other side is connected to the crankcase of the engine, if the diaphram splits (a common failure), it can leak fuel into the crankcase.The pump creates negative pressure to draw the fuel through the lines.

However, the low pressure between the pump and the fuel tank, in combination with heat from the engine and/or hot weather, can cause the fuel to vaporize in the supply line. This results in fuel starvation as the fuel pump, designed to pump liquid, not vapor, is unable to suck more fuel to the engine, causing the engine to stall. This condition is different from vapor lock, where high engine heat on the pressured side of the pump (between the pump and the carburetor) boils the fuel in the lines, also starving the engine of enough fuel to run. Mechanical automotive fuel pumps generally do not generate much more than 10-15 psi, which is more than enough for most carburetors.In many modern cars the fuel pump is usually electric and located inside of the fuel tank.

The pump creates positive pressure in the fuel lines, pushing the gasoline to the engine. The higher gasoline pressure raises the boiling point. Placing the pump in the tank puts the component least likely to handle gasoline vapor well (the pump itself) farthest from the engine, submersed in cool liquid. Another benefit to placing the pump inside the tank is that it is less likely to start a fire. Though electrical components (such as a fuel pump) can spark and ignite fuel vapors, liquid fuel will not explode (see explosive limit) and therefore submerging the pump in the tank is one of the safest places to put it. In most cars, the fuel pump delivers a constant flow of gasoline to the engine; fuel not used is returned to the tank.

This further reduces the chance of the fuel boiling, since it is never kept to be controlled via pulse-width modulation of the pump voltage. This increases the life of the pump, allows a smaller and lighter device to be used, and reduces electrical load.Fuel injected cars have an ECU (Electronic Control Unit) and this may be programmed with safety logic that will shut the electric fuel pump off, even if the engine is running. In the event of a collision this will prevent fuel leaking from any ruptured fuel line. Additionally, cars may have an inertia switch (usually located underneath the front passenger seat) that is "tripped" in the event of an impact, or aroll over valve, that will shut off the fuel pump in case the car rolls over.

Some ECU's may also be programmed to shut off the fuel pump if they detect low or zero oil pressure, for instance if the engine has suffered a terminal failure (with the subsequent risk of fire in the engine compartment).The fuel sending unit assembly may be a combination of the electric fuel pump, filter, and the electronic device used to measure the amount of fuel in the tank via a float attached to a sensor with sends data to the dash mounted fuel gauge.

how to replace fuel pump

2009-10-31T22:05:00.000-07:00

Without a fuel pump, your engine will quickly starve. A bad fuel pump will kill things quickly. You can easily replace and install an electric fuel pump. This how to will guide you through the process step by step

Fire Extinguisher!

Replacement Fuel Pump

New Fuel Line

Open End Wrench Set

Socket Set

Flat Head Screwdriver

Phillips Head Screwdriver

Large Fuel Catch Container

When you're ready to replace your fuel pump, be sure you have safety in mind. Work in an open, well ventilated area, and be sure you have a fire extinguisher close by.An electric fuel pumps high fuel pressure to supply your electronic fuel injection system with plenty of pressurized fuel. The pressure doesn't go away just because you turn the engine off. You'll need to take steps to release the fuel pressure before you can remove the fuel pump or any associated parts.

1. Allow engine to cool 2. relieve fuel system pressure 3. put on your eye protection

Before you begin the job of replacing your fuel filter, you must relieve the pressure in your fuel system. A fuel injection system operates under very high pressure. If you don't release this pressure before you start unscrewing fuel lines the result can be explosive. Do this before you attempt to change the fuel filter.To release the pressure in your fuel lines (and fuel filter) you'll need to locate the fuel pump fuse in the fuse box(These days many cars have two locations for fuses. I'm not sure what the reasoning is, but they do it. It does keep things a little less cluttered.

Whether your car has one fuse box or two, it will have one underneath the dashboard. It is usually located just in front of your left knee if you're sitting in the driver's seat. We recommend using your hand to replace the fuse as it will take much longer using your knee. The fuses will be hidden behind a plastic cover, but it's usually marked clearly. Open the cover and you should see a row of different colored fuses sitting nicely inside. You will also probably (hopefully) find a diagram on the cover that shows you which fuse goes to what.

Most cars even provide some spare fuses and a little fuse puller that you can use to remove a blown fuse and insert a new one. In the case of your headlights being out, find the slot on the diagram that indicates the headlight fuse. Grab it with the fuse puller (or our fingers if you have no p

uller) and pull it out. If it's blown, you'll see a melted "bridge" going between the two blades.

Trust me, you'll know if it's blown. If it's not blown, and you know you have located the right fuse, you'll need to either get down to electrical analysis or take your car in for repairs.Find a new fuse in your spares, or if you have no spares get it from the spares you bought. Be sure to use the same amperage fuse. They are both color coded and imprinted according to amperage, so if you install the same color fuse you're golden.)If you don't have a fuel pump fuse, find the relay that operates the fuel pump.

Once you've found the fuel pump fuse or relay, start the car. With the engine running, pull the fuse or relay out. If you pulled the right one, the engine will quickly die. Since it's using all of the pressurized fuel in the system, the fuel lines won't be pressurized when you crack the fittings on your fuel filter.When you're sure there is no fuel pressure in the fuel lines or fuel pump, you can proceed with the fuel pump removal.

There are two types of electric fuel pump. One type mounts inside the gas tank, the other mounts underneath the car just in front of the fuel tank. If your fuel pump mounts underneath the car, it will be held in by a couple of bolts. You can locate your fuel pump by sliding underneath the car (if you can't fit, you can place the car securely on jack stands) and looking just in front of the gas tank on one side of the car or the other. You can also follow the fuel line from the tank to the fuel pump. The pump will often be in a black insulating sleeve.

Unbolt it and let it drop down slightly. You won't be able to remove it from the sleeve until everything is disconnected.

If you have the type of fuel pump that mounts inside the fuel tank, you'll need to remove it from inside the car. The access point to an in-tank fuel pump is either underneath your back seat, or if you're lucky it's under carpet and an access panel in the trunk.When you've located the pump, you'll need to disconnect everything before you remove it from the tank. This is covered in the following steps.Now that you can clearly see everything, you need to disconnect the fuel lines. If you have an in-tank pump, there will be one line on the top of the pump that needs to be disconnected. If you have an under car pump there will be both a line in and a line out. These are also called the low pressure and high pressure side of the pump.To remove the lines, loosen the hose clamp or fitting that are holding the low pressure side in, then loosen the fitting and remove the line.Be sure to have something on hand to catch the gas that leaks from the lines so that it doesn't splash the floor and create a fire hazard.The last step in removing your fuel pump is disconnecting the wires that power the pump. There will be two wires, one is positive, the other ground. It's a good idea to make a note of which is which. What seems obvious while you're taking it off can be baffling when it's time to put it all back. The wires will be held on by plugs, screws, or really small bolts.With everything disconnected, you're ready to remove the pump. As the saying goes, installation is the reverse of removal, so go ahead!.

What is a fuel pump?

2009-10-31T20:54:00.000-07:00

A fuel pump is a frequently (but not always) essential component on a car or other internal combustion engined device. Many engines (older motorcycle engines in particular) do not require any fuel pump at all, requiring only gravity to feed fuel from the fuel tank through a line or hose to the engine. But in non-gravity feed designs, fuel has to be pumped from the fuel tank to the engine and delivered under low pressure to the carburetor or under high pressure to the fuel injection system.

Often, carbureted engines use low pressure mechanical pumps that are mounted outside the fuel tank, whereas fuel injected engines often use electric fuel pumps that are mounted inside the fuel tank (and some fuel injected engines have two fuel pumps: one low pressure/high volume supply pump in the tank and one high pressure/low volume pump on or near the engine).

The carburetor typically contains a float bowl into which the expelled fuel is pumped. When the fuel level in the float bowl exceeds a certain level, the inlet valve to the carburetor will close, preventing the fuel pump from pumping more fuel into the carburetor. At this point, any remaining fuel inside the pump chamber is trapped, unable to exit through the inlet port or outlet port. The diaphragm will continue to allow pressure to the diaphragm, and during the subsequent rotation, the eccentric will pull the diaphragm back to bottom dead center, where it will remain until the inlet valve to the carburetor reopens.

Because one side of the pump diaphram contains fuel under pressure and the other side is connected to the crankcase of the engine, if the diaphram splits (a common failure), it can leak fuel into the crankcase.

The pump creates negative pressure to draw the fuel through the lines. However, the low pressure between the pump and the fuel tank, in combination with heat from the engine and/or hot weather, can cause the fuel to vaporize in the supply line. This results in fuel starvation as the fuel pump, designed to pump liquid, not vapor, is unable to suck more fuel to the engine, causing the engine to stall.

This condition is different from vapor lock, where high engine heat on the pressured side of the pump (between the pump and the carburetor) boils the fuel in the lines, also starving the engine of enough fuel to run. Mechanical automotive fuel pumps generally do not generate much more than 10-15 psi, which is more than enough for most carburetors.

In many modern cars the fuel pump is usually electric and located inside of the fuel tank. The pump creates positive pressure in the fuel lines, pushing the gasoline to the engine. The higher gasoline pressure raises the boiling point. Placing the pump in the tank puts the component least likely to handle gasoline vapor well (the pump itself) farthest from the engine, submersed in cool liquid. Another benefit to placing the pump inside the tank is that it is less likely to start a fire. Though electrical components (such as a fuel pump) can spark and ignite fuel vapors, liquid fuel will not explode (see explosive limit) and therefore submerging the pump in the tank is one of the safest places to put it. In most cars, the fuel pump delivers a constant flow of gasoline to the engine; fuel not used is returned to the tank.

This further reduces the chance of the fuel boiling, since it is never kept to be controlled via pulse-width modulation of the pump voltage. This increases the life of the pump, allows a smaller and lighter device to be used, and reduces electrical load.

Fuel injected cars have an ECU (Electronic Control Unit) and this may be programmed with safety logic that will shut the electric fuel pump off, even if the engine is running. In the event of a collision this will prevent fuel leaking from any ruptured fuel line. Additionally, cars may have an inertia switch (usually located underneath the front passenger seat) that is "tripped" in the event of an impact, or a roll over valve, that will shut off the fuel pump in case the car rolls over.

Some ECU's may also be programmed to shut off the fuel pump if they detect low or zero oil pressure, for instance if the engine has suffered a terminal failure (with the subsequent risk of fire in the engine compartment).

The fuel sending unit assembly may be a combination of the electric fuel pump, filter, and the electronic device used to measure the amount of fuel in the tank via a float attached to a sensor with sends data to the dash mounted fuel gauge.

Quality of transport by Octane number

2009-10-31T19:00:00.000-07:00

Millions of cars are running in the world by petrol engines. In petrol engine, a mixture of petrol vapor and air is drawn into the cylinder in downward stroke. The fuel mixture is then compressed in upward stroke. Just before the completion of compression the spark plug ignites the petrol air mixture and smooth combustion takes place whereby the automobiles run smoothly. If poor quality fuels are used then combustion takes place during compression before the spark plug fires. In such a case the piston is pushed violently, and irregular force is transmitted to crankshaft whereby metallic noise is produced. Such action in automobile engine is known as knocking of the engine. Knocking of the engine shortens the life and efficiency of engine.

Different fuels have different knocking tendencies. The quality of fuel is judged from the antiknock property of the fuel and is indicated in terms of octane number. It is found that straight chain alkanes are more prone to induce engine knock than the branched chain alkanes. Heptanes are a particularly bad fuel and are assigned arbitrarily an octane number of 0 and iso-octane (2, 2, 4-trimethyl pentane) which is excellent fuel is assigned an octane number of 100.

Remember to consider the following:

N-heptane (octane number =0) iso-octane (octane number 100)

The octane number to any fuel is given by comparing its antiknock property with the mixture of iso-octane and n-heptanes. If the antiknock property of a given fuel is identical with a mixture of 75% iso-octane and 25% n-heptane then its octane number is given as 75. The greater the octane number the better is the fuel. The gasoline obtained by fractional distillation of petroleum contains more straight chain alkanes and is a poor fuel. Owing to this the petroleum chemists carry out different processes to increase the percentage of branched chain alkanes to increase the octane number of fuel.

One way of increasing octane number of fuel is increase the percentage of branched chain alkanes or to add aromatic hydrocarbons. Another way of increasing combustion of fuel in engine is to add small quantity of tetra alkyl lead specially tetra ethyl lead(TEL) or tetra methyl lead. Gasoline containing tetra alkyl lead is known as leaded gasoline or leaded petrol. Tetra-ethyl lead reduces the knocking property of un-branched alkanes and is known as gasoline additive. A layer of lead oxide is formed when leaded petrol is used. To prevent this 1,2 bromoethane is added.This will convert waste lead to volatile lead bromide, which passes out with exhaust gases.About 6 gram of tetra ethyl lead is added per gallon of gasoline in UK. Because of large number of vehicles running in the city, the levels of lead emitted to the atmosphere by the use of leaded petrol have reached to hazardous level.Therefore many developed countries have decided to use only those vehicles which run in lead free petrol.

The petroleum fraction containing C1 to C12 are in great demand . So, scientists have developed a technique of converting hydrocarbons with bigger molecules to more useful smaller molecules. This can be achieved by passing the vapor of higher alkanes over Al2O3 or SiO2 catalyst at about 450 degree celsius. The industry calls this type of reaction as cracking.

Straight alkanes containing 6 or more carbon atoms can be converted to aromatic compound by the process known as reforming or aromatization.In reforming the straight chain alkanes are heated to about 400 degree celsius in presence of catalyst such as platinum, palladium, nickel or cobaltby aromatic compounds are produced.

Shipping a core of transport system

2009-10-24T01:35:00.000-07:00

Shipping has multiple meanings. It can be a physical process of transporting goods and cargo, by land, air, and sea. It also can describe the movement of objects by ship.

Land or "ground" shipping can be by train or by truck. In Air and Sea shipments, ground transportation is often still required to take the product from its origin to the airport or seaport and then to its destination. Ground transportation is typically more affordable than air shipments, but more expensive than shipping by sea.

Shipment of freight by trucks, directly from the shipper to the destination, is known as a door to door shipment. Vans and trucks make deliveries to sea ports and air ports where freight is moved in bulk.

Much shipping is done aboard actual ships. An individual nation's fleet and the people that crew it are referred to its merchant navy or merchant marine. Merchant shipping is essential to the world economy, carrying the bulk of international trade. The term shipping in this context originated from the shipping trade of wind power ships, and has come to refer to the delivery of cargo and parcels of any size above the common mail of letters and postcards.

Terms of shipment

Harbour cranes unload cargo from a container ship at the Jawaharlal Nehru Port, Navi Mumbai, India

Common trading terms used in shipping goods internationally include:

Freight on board, or free on board (FOB) - the exporter delivers the goods at the specified location (and on board the vessel). Costs paid by the exporter include load and lash, including securing cargo not to move in the ships hold, protecting the cargo from contact with the double bottom to prevent slipping, and protection against damage from condensation. For example, at Kunming Airport, FOB means that the exporter delivers the goods to the airport, and pays for the cargo to be loaded and secured on the plane. The exporter is bound to deliver the goods at his cost and expense. In this case, the freight and other expenses for outbound traffic is borne by the importer.

Cost and freight (C&F, CFR, CNF): Insurance is payable by the importer, and the exporter pays the ocean shipping/air freight costs to the specified location. For example, C&F Los Angeles (the exporter pays the ocean shipping/air freight costs to Los Angeles). Many of the shipping carriers (such as UPS, DHL, FEDEX) offer guarantees on their delivery times. These are known as GSR guarantees or "guaranteed service refunds"; if the parcels are not delivered on time, the customer is entitled to a refund.

Cost, insurance, and freight (CIF): Insurance and freight are all paid by the exporter to the specified location. For example, at CIF Los Angeles, the exporter pays the ocean shipping/air freight costs to Los Angeles including the insurance).

The term "best way" generally implies that the shipper will c hoose the carrier who offers the lowest rate (to the shipper) for the shipment. In some cases, however, other factors, such as better insurance or faster transit time will cause the shipper to choose an option other than the lowest bidder.

This is a list of the world's ship operating companies listed alphabetically by continent and country. This list includes companies both operating now and in the past.

Africa

Algeria

Ascope Shipping Services.
Ascope Shippers UK.

Ghana

Ascope Shipping Services.
Ascope Shippers UK.

Kenya

Ascope Shipping Services.

Egypt

Ascope Shipping Services.
Ascope Shippers UK.
El Salam Maritime Transport

Morocco

Ascope Shipping Services.
Ascope Shippers UK.
COMANAV
Limadet

Nigeria

Ascope Shipping Services.
Ascope Shippers UK.

South Africa

Ascope Shipping Services.
Ascope Shippers UK.
Safmarine (South African Marine Corporation)

Tanzania

Ascope Shipping Services.
Ascope Shippers UK.
Bongo Trader Shipping Co Ltd

Americas

Canada

Algoma Central Marine
BC Ferries
Canadian National Steamships
CP Ships
Canada Steamship Lines Inc.
Coopérative de transport maritime et aérien (CTMA)
Lower Lakes Towing
Incan Marine
Northern Cruise
Northern Navigation Company
Upper Lakes Shipping
Voyageur Marine Transport
Vanguard Shipping
Transport Groupe Desgagnes
Atlantic Towing

Chile

Compañía Sud Americana de Vapores (CSAV)

Costa Rica

Altamar Shipping

Greenland

Arctic Umiaq Line

Mexico

Transportación Marítima de California
Baja Ferries
Linea Peninsular
Sematur
Transbordadores

Panama

Home Lines

United States

Action Pack And Ship
Aker American Shipping
American Line
American Palestine Line
Atlantic Transport Line
Carnival Cruise Lines
Disney Cruise Lines
Global Container Lines
Independent Container Line Ltd. (ICL)
Ingram Barge Company
Interlake Steamship Company
International Mercantile Marine Co.
Lake Express
Landmark Shipping Company
Los Angeles Steamship Company
Matson Navigation Company
Moore McCormack Lines
Neptune Steamship Company
Panama Pacific Line
Princess Cruises
Red Star Line
Robert Kermits Red Star Line
Royal Caribbean
Staten Island Ferry
Titan International Shipping
TransAtlantic Lines LLC
United American Lines

Asia

China

COSCO
China Shipping Container Lines (CSCL)
Hong Kong

Ascope Shipping Services.
Ascope Shippers UK.
Orient Overseas Container Line (OOCL)
Sinotrans
Emirates Shipping L
India

Great Eastern Shipping Co.
Marinetrans India Pvt. Ltd.
Mercator Lines
New Patiala Transport Co.
Shipping Corporation of India
West Asia Maritime

Indonesia

[SAMUDERA INDONESIA GROUP,TBK]
Bumi Laut Group
PT Meratus Line
Samudera Shipping Service

Israel

Zim Integrated Shipping Services

Japan

Kawasaki Kisen Kaisha (K Line)
Mitsui O.S.K. Lines (MOL)
Nippon Yusen Kaisha (NYK)
Meiji Shipping Group (MS)

Kuwait

United Arab Shipping Company

Qatar

QATAR SHIPPING COMPANY Q.S.C Malaysia

MISC Berhad

alam maritim Bumi armada

Pakistan

Pakistan National Shipping Corporation

Saudi Arabia

National Shipping Company of Saudi Arabia (NSCSA)

Singapore

Anson Marine International
Samudera Shipping Line Pte Ltd[2]
American President Lines (APL)
Neptune Orient Lines (NOL)
Pacific International Lines (PIL)
OceanBlu Shipping (S) Pte Ltd
Nautiqo Maritime Agency Pte Ltd South Korea

SINOKOR LINE - SKR
Hanjin
Hyundai Merchant Marine (HMM)

Taiwan

Evergreen Marine
Yang Ming
Wan Hai Lines

Turkey

Istanbul Fast Ferries
Turkish Marmara Lines
TURKON LINE
CAYENNE MARITIME S.A

Australasia

Australia

TT-line
Patrick Shipping
Toll Shipping
Australian National Lines
DiscountSeaFreight

New Zealand

Ascope Shipping Services.
Ascope Shippers UK.
Union Company or Union Steam Ship Company (USS Co), Union Line (later British owned)
New Zealand Line (later British owned)
The Interislander
Bluebridge
Foytt Shipping
Top Cat (defunct)
Fullers Ferries

Europe

Belgium

Compagnie Maritime Belge (Lloyd Royal)
Oostende Lines
Overseas Containers Limited
Red Star Line

Bulgaria

Balkan and Black Sea Shipping (UK-based)
Navibulgar

Croatia

Atlantska plovidba
Lošinjska plovidba
Tankerska plovidba
Jadroplov

Denmark

Alcatel Submarine Networks Marine A/S
A.P. Møller - Mærsk A/S
- Maersk Line
- Maersk Sealand
- Youship
Arctic Umiaq Line A/S
A/S Dampskibsselskabet Torm
Atlas Shipping A/S
Bornholmstrafikken
Bugser og Bjergning Danmark AS
Camillo Eitzen & Co ASA
Clipper Group A/S
Corral Line
Dampskibsselskabet Norden A/S
Dannebrog Rederi A/S
Dansk Rederi A/S
DFDS
Difko Selskaberne
DONG Energy Generation A/S
East Asiatic Company
Fabricius Marine A/S
J. Lauritzen A/S
Mols Linien
North Atlantic Lines Operation A/S
Olau Line
O.W. Bunker & Trading A/S
Rederiet Erik Winther
Rederiet Otto Danielsen
RN Dredging B.V.
Royal Arctic Line A/S
Scandlines
SvitzerWijsmuller A/S
Tankskibsrederiet Herning A/S
T.K.B. Shipping A/S
Unifeeder A/S
Vattenfall Danmark

Faroe Islads

Smyril Line

Finland

Birka Line
Bore Steamship Company
Botnia Link
Delfin Cruises
Eckerö Line
Eckerö Linjen
Effoa
Finland Line
Finnlines
Folkline
Jakob Lines
KG-Line
Kristina Cruises
Nordic Jet Line
Rederi Ab Sally
RG Line
Sally Cruise
Sally Line UK
SeaWind Line

France

Brittany Ferries
CMA CGM
Compagnie Générale Transatlantique
Compagnie Navigation du Sud-Atlantique
Corsica Ferries
Delmas
Emeraude Lines
LD Lines
Messageries Maritimes
SNCM
SeaFrance
Société Francaise de Transports Pétroliers

Germany

Africa Shipping
Deutsche Atlantik Line
Elbe Ferries
Ernst Russ
Euroseabridge
German-East Africa Line
German Tanker Shipping
Hamburg Atlantik Line
Hamburg America Line (HAPAG)
Hamburg Süd
Hanseatic Tours
Hapag-Lloyd
North German Lloyd
Phoenix Reisen
Poseidon Schiffahrts
Prinzen Line
Reederei Peter Deilmann
TT-Line

Greece

Ascope Shipping Services.
Ascope Shippers UK.
AMNEZ
ANEK Lines
ANEZ Lines
Arkadia Line
Blue Star Ferries
Carras Group
Ceres Hellenic Shipping Enterprises
Chandris Lines
DANE Sea Line
Efthymiades Lines
Endeavor Lines
Epirotiki Lines
European Seaways
Fast Ferries
Five Star Lines
Fraglines Ferries
G.A. Ferries
Greek Line
Hellenic Mediterranean Lines
Hellenic Seaways
Iolcos Hellenic Maritime Enterprises Co. Ltd.
Superfast Ferries
Ulysses Line

Iceland

Atlantsskip
Eimskip
Hafskip
Nesskip
Samskip
Víkur

Ireland

B&I Line
Fastnet Line
Irish Ferries
Norse Merchant Ferries
Swansea Cork Ferries

Italy

Ascope Shipping Services.
Ascope Shippers UK.
Bluvia
CAREMAR
Caronte Shipping
Costa Crociere
Cosulich Line
Gruppo Grimaldi
Home Lines
Ignazio Messina
Italian Line
Lauro Line
Lloyd Triestino
Maritime Way
Moby Lines
MSC Cruises
Siosa Lines
SNAV
Starlauro Cruises
Tirrenia di Navigazione

Latvia

Rīgas Jūras Līnija

Lithuania

LISCO

Netherlands

Holland America Line
Netherland Line (Royal Dutch Mail)
Norfolkline
Royal Rotterdam Lloyd
Stoomvaart Maatschappij Zeeland (SMZ)

Norway

Belships
Bergen Line
Bergesen Worldwide
Borgestad
Bourbon Offshore
Color Line
Det Stavangerske Dampskibsselskab
Deep Ocean
Eidsiva Rederi
Farstad Shipping
Fosen Trafikklag
Finnmark Fylkesrederi
Fjord1
Fjord Line
Flagship Cruises
Fred. Olsen & Co.
Fred. Olsen Cruise Lines
Fred. Olsen Lines
Frontline Ltd.
Fylkesbaatane
GC Rieber Shipping
Golar LNG
Green Reefers
Grieg Shipping
Havila Shipping
Helgelandske
Hurtigruten
Hoegh, Leif & Co
Interocean Line
Jahre Line
Kristian Jebsens Rederi
Kloster Cruise
Knutsen OAS Shipping
Kystlink
Larvik Line
Master Ferries
Møre og Romsdal Fylkesrederi
Namsos Trafikkselskap
Norway Line
Norwegian America Line
Norwegian Cruise Line
Odfjell
Einar Rasmussen
Royal Viking Line
Skaugen, I.M.
Stolt-Nielsen
Thoresen Car Ferries
Tide
Torghatten Trafikkselskap
Solvang
Solstad Offshore
Star Shipping
Stavangerske
Westfal-Larsen
Viking Supply Ships
Wilhelmsen Lines
Wilson
Ostensjøs Rederi

Poland

Euroafrica
Polferries
Polish Ocean Lines
Unity Line
Zegluga Gdanska

Portugal

Ascope Shipping Services.
Ascope Shippers UK.
Portline
Porto Santo Line

Romania

Histria Shipmanagement
Navrom
Serviciul Maritim Român

Russia

Baltic Line
SovComFlot
Primorsk Shipping Corporation
St. Petersburg Shipping
Volgotanker
Fesco

Former Soviet Union

Azov Shipping Company
Baltic Shipping Company
Black Sea Shipping Company (BLASCO)
Caspian Shipping Company
Estonian Shipping Company (ESCO)
Far East Shipping Company (FESCO)
Georgian Shipping Company
Kamchatka Shipping Company
Latvian Shipping Company
Lithuanian Shipping Company
Murmansk Shipping Company
Northern Shipping Company
Novorossiysk Shipping Company
Primorsk Shipping Company
Sakhalin Shipping Company
Soviet Danube Shipping Company
Sovtorgflot

Slovenia

Splošna plovba

Spain

Ascope Shipping Services.
Ascope Shippers UK.
ARMAS
Balearia Eurolines
Compañía Transatlántica Española
Euroferrys
Lineas Fred. Olsen
Acciona Transmediterranea

Sweden

Ahlmark Lines
Atlantic Container Line
Broström
Destination Gotland
Donsötank
Euroway
Furetank
Gamla Stans Rederi AB
Gotlandslinjen
Johnson Line
Lion Ferry
Nordström & Thulin
Nordö Link
Rederi AB Slite
Rederi AB Svea
Sessan Line
Stena Line
Sirius Rederi
Swedish America Line
Swedish Lloyd
Swedish Orient Line
Tor Line
Transatlantic
Trave Line
Veritas ankers
Wallenius Lines
Waxholmsbolaget
Ålandspilen
Ånedin Linjen

Switzerland

Mediterranean Shipping Company (MSC)

United Kingdom

Ascope Shipping Services.
Ascope Shippers UK.
Andrew Weir
Alexander Shipping Company
Alva Steamship Company
Anchor Line
Asiatic Steam Navigation Company
Athel Line
Atlantic Steam Navigation Company
BP Shipping
Bank Line
Belfast Steamship Company
Ben Line
Bibby Line
Blue Funnel Line
Blue Star Line
Bolton Steam Shipping Company
Booker Line
Booth Line
Bowring Steamship Company
Bristol City Line
Britain Steamship Company
British India Line
British Railways
Brocklebank Line
Buries Markes Limited
Burnett Steamship Company
Burns & Laird Lines
Cable & Wireless Limited
Caledonian MacBrayne
Canadian Pacific Line
Chapman & Willan Limited
China Navigation Company
City Line
Clan Line
Coast Lines
Cory Line
Court Line
Cunard Line
Currie Line
Dominion Line
Donaldson Line
Eastern & Australian Steamship Company
Elder Dempster Line
Ellerman Line
Ellerman & Bucknall Line
Ellerman & Papayanni Line
Ellerman's Wilson Line
F T Everard & Sons Limited
Federal Steam Navigation Company
Wm France, Fenwick & Company Limited
Furness-Bermuda Line
Furness Lines
Fyffes Line
Geest Line
General Steam Navigation Company
Isle of Man Steam Packet Company
Jamaica Banana Priducers Steamship Company
Johnston Warren Lines
King Line
Lambert Brothers Limited
Lamport & Holt Line
Larrinaga Steamship Company
Loch Line
London & Overseas Freighters
Lyle Shipping Company
MacAndrews & Company Limited
David MacBrayne Limited
Manchester Liners
Metcalf Motor Coasters Limited
Metcalfe Shipping Company
Monarch Steamship Company
Moss Hutchinson Line
New Zealand Shipping Company
Normandy Ferries
North of Scotland, Orkney & Shetland Shipping Company
North Yorkshire Steamship Company
Ocean Village
Ore Carriers Limited
Orient Steam Navigation Company
P&O Ferries
P&O Nedlloyd
Pacific Steam Navigation Company
Palm Line
Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company
Port Line
Prince Line
Sir William Reardon Smith & Son Limited
Red Funnel Steamers Limited
Red Star Line
Ropner Shipping Company
Royal Fleet Auxiliary
Royal Mail Lines
Christian Salvesen & Company Limited
SeaContainers
Shaw, Savill & Albion Line
Silver Line
Stephenson Clarke Limited
Strick Line
Surrey Shipping Company Limited
Swan Hellenic
Thomson Cruises
Townsend Bros. Ferries
Townsend Thoresen
Tyne-Tees Steamship Company
Ulster Steamship Company
Union-Castle Line
United Steamship Company Limited
White Star Line

Biodiesel a partial hope for transport industry

2009-10-24T01:19:00.000-07:00

Biodiesel refers to a vegetable oil- or animal fat-based diesel fuel consisting of long-chain alkyl (methyl, propyl or ethyl) esters. Biodiesel is typically made by chemically reacting lipids (e.g., vegetable oil, animal fat (tallow)) with an alcohol.

Biodiesel is meant to be used in standard diesel engines and is thus distinct from the vegetable and waste oils used to fuel converted diesel engines. Biodiesel can be used alone, or blended with petrodiesel.

Biodiesel production is the act of producing the biofuel, biodiesel, through either transesterification or alcoholysis. The process involves reacting vegetable oils or animal fatscatalytically with a short-chain aliphatic alcohols (typically methanol or ethanol).

The major steps required to synthesize biodiesel are as follows: Feedstock pretreatment

If waste vegetable oil (WVO) is used, it is filtered to remove dirt, charred food, and other non-oil material often found. Water is removed because its presence causes the triglycerides to hydrolyze, giving salts of the fatty acids (soaps) instead of undergoing transesterification to give biodiesel.

Determination and treatment of free fatty acids

A sample of the cleaned feedstock oil is titrated with a standardized base solution in order to determine the concentration of free fatty acids (carboxylic acids) present in the waste vegetable oil sample. These acids are then either esterified into biodiesel, esterified into bound glycerides, or removed, typically through neutralization.

Reactions

While adding the base, a slight excess is factored in to provide the catalyst for the transesterification. The calculated quantity of base (usually sodium hydroxide) is added slowly to the alcohol and it is stirred until it dissolves. Sufficient alcohol is added to make up three full equivalents of the triglyceride, and an excess of usually six parts alcohol to one part triglyceride is added to drive the reaction to completion.

product purification

Products of the reaction include not only biodiesel, but also byproducts, soap, glycerin, excess alcohol, and trace amounts of water. All of these byproducts must be removed, though the order of removal is process-dependent.

The density of glycerin is greater than that of biodiesel, and this property difference is exploited to separate the bulk of the glycerin byproduct. Residual methanol is typically removed through distillation and reused, though it can be washed out (with water) as a waste as well. Soaps can be removed or converted into acids. Any residual water must be removed from the fuel.

Reactions

Transesterification

A reaction scheme for transesterification is as follows:

R₁, R₂, and R₃ in this diagram represent long carbon chains that are too lengthy to include in the diagram.

Animal and plant fats and oils are typically made of triglycerides which are esters of free fatty acids with the trihydric alcohol, glycerol. In the transesterification process, the alcohol is deprotonated with a base to make it a stronger nucleophile. Commonly, ethanol or methanol are used. As can be seen, the reaction has no other inputs than the triglyceride and the alcohol.

Normally, this reaction will proceed either exceedingly slowly or not at all. Heat, as well as an acid or base are used to help the reaction proceed more quickly. It is important to note that the acid or base are not consumed by the transesteri

fication reaction, thus they are not reactants but catalysts.

Almost all biodiesel is produced from virgin vegetable oils using the base-catalyzed technique as it is the most economical process for treating virgin vegetable oils, requiring only low temperatures and pressures and producing over

98% conversion yield (provided the starting oil is low in moisture and free fatty acids). However, biodiesel produced from other sources or by other methods may require acid catalysis which is much slower. Since it is the predominant metho

d for commercial-scale production, only the ba

se-catalyzed transesterification process will be d

escribed below.

An example of the transesterification reaction eq

uation, shown in skeletal formulas:

Since natural oils are typically used in this process, the alkyl groups of the triglyceride are not necessarily the same. Therefore, distinguishing

these different alkyl groups, we have a more accurate depiction of the reaction:

R₁, R₂, R₃ : Alkyl group.

During the esterification process, the triglyceride is reacted with alcohol in the presence of a catalyst, usually a strong alkali (NaOH, KOH, or Alkoxides). The main reason for doing a titration to produce biodiesel, is to find out how much alkaline is needed to completely neutralize any free fatty acids present, thus ensuring a complete transesterification. Empirically 6.25 g / L NaOH produces a very usable fuel. One uses about 6 g NaOH when the WVO is light in colour and about 7 g NaOH when it is dark in colour.

The alcohol reacts with the fatty acids to form the mono-alkyl ester (or biodiesel) and crude glycerol. The reaction between the biolipid (fat or oil) and the alcohol is a reversible reaction so the alcohol must be added in excess to drive the reaction towards the right and ensure complete conversion.

Base-catalysed transesterification mechanism

The transesterification reaction is base catalyzed. Any strong base capable of deprotonating the alcohol will do (e.g. NaOH, KOH, Sodium methoxide, etc.). Commonly the base (KOH, NaOH) is dissolved in the alcohol to make a convenient method of dispersing the otherwise solid catalyst into the oil. The ROH needs to be very dry. Any water in the process promotes the saponification reaction, thereby producing salts of fatty acids (soaps) and consuming the base, and thus inhibits the transesterification reaction. Once the alcohol mixture is made, it is added to the triglyceride. The reaction that follows replaces the alkyl group on the triglyceride in a series of steps.

The carbon on the ester of the triglyceride has a slight positive charge, and the carbonyl oxygens have a slight negative charge. This polarization of the C=O bond is what attracts the RO^- to the reaction site.

                        R1
Polarized attraction |
RO-  ————————————————>  C=O
                   |
                   O-CH2-CH-CH2-O-C=O
                         |        |
                         O-C=O    R3
                           |
                           R2

This yields a tetrahedral intermediate that has a negative charge on the former carbonyl oxygen:

   R1
|
RO-C-O- (pair of electrons)
|
O-CH2-CH-CH2-O-C=O
    |        |
    O-C=O    R3
      |
      R2

These electrons then fall back to the carbon and push off the diacylglycerol forming the ester.

   R1
|
RO-C=O

+
-O-CH2-CH-CH2-O-C=O
     |        |
     O-C=O    R3
       |
       R2

Then two more RO groups react via this mechanism at the other two C=O groups. This type of reaction has several limiting factors. RO^- has to fit in the space where there is a slight positive charge on the C=O. MeO- works well because it is small in size. As the chain length of the RO- group increases, reaction rates decrease. This effect is called steric hindrance. This effect is a primary reason the short chain alcohols, methanol and ethanol, are typically used.

There are several competing reactions, so care must be taken to ensure the desired reaction pathway occurs. Most methods do this by using an excess of RO^-.

The acid-catalyzed method is a slight variant that is also affected by steric hindrance.

Production methods

Batch process

Preparation: care must be taken to monitor the amount of water and free fatty acids in the incoming biolipid (oil or fat). If the free fatty acid level or water level is too high it may cause problems with soap formation (saponification) and the separation of the glycerin by-product downstream.

Catalyst is dissolved in the alcohol using a standard agitator or mixer.

The alcohol/catalyst mix is then charged into a closed reaction vessel and the biolipid (vegetable or animal oil or fat) is added. The system from here on is totally closed to the atmosphere to prevent the loss of alcohol.

The reaction mix is kept just above the boiling point of the alcohol (around 70 °C, 158 °F) to speed up the reaction though some systems recommend the reaction take place anywhere from room temperature to 55 °C (131 °F) for safety reasons. Recommended reaction time varies from 1 to 8 hours; under normal conditions the reaction rate will double with every 10 °C increase in reaction temperature. Excess alcohol is normally used to ensure total conversion of the fat or oil to its esters.

The glycerin phase is much denser than biodiesel phase and the two can be gravity separated with glycerin simply drawn off the bottom of the settling vessel. In some cases, a centrifuge is used to separate the two materials faster.

Once the glycerin and biodiesel phases have been separated, the excess alcohol in each phase is removed with a flash evaporation process or by distillation. In other systems, the alcohol is removed and the mixture neutralized before the glycerin and esters have been separated. In either case, the alcohol is recovered using distillation equipment and is re-used. Care must be taken to ensure no water accumulates in the recovered alcohol stream.

The glycerin by-product contains unused catalyst and soaps that are neutralized with an acid and sent to storage as crude glycerin (water and alcohol are removed later, chiefly using evaporation, to produce 80-88% pure glycerin).

Once separated from the glycerin, the biodiesel is sometimes purified by washing gently with warm water to remove residual catalyst or soaps, dried, and sent to storage.

Supercritical process

An alternative, catalyst-free method for transesterification uses supercritical methanol at high temperatures and pressures in a continuous process. In the supercritical state, the oil and methanol are in a single phase, and reaction occurs spontaneously and rapidly. The process can tolerate water in the feedstock, free fatty acids are converted to methyl esters instead of soap, so a wide variety of feedstocks can be used. Also the catalyst removal step is eliminated. High temperatures and pressures are required, but energy costs of production are similar or less than catalytic production routes.

Ultra- and high-shear in-line and batch reactors

Ultra- and High Shear in-line or batch reactors allow production of biodiesel continuously, semi- continuously, and in batch-mode. This drastically reduces production time and increases production volume.

The reaction takes place in the high-energetic shear zone of the Ultra- and High Shear mixer by reducing the droplet size of the immiscible liquids such as oil or fats and methanol. Therefore, the smaller the droplet size the larger the surface area the faster the catalyst can react.

Ultrasonic-reactor method

In the ultrasonic reactor method, the ultrasonic waves cause the reaction mixture to produce and collapse bubbles constantly. This cavitation provides simultaneously the mixing and heating required to carry out the transesterification process. Thus using an ultrasonic reactor for biodiesel production drastically reduces the reaction time, reaction temperatures, and energy input. Hence the process of transesterification can run inline rather than using the time consuming batch processing. Industrial scale ultrasonic devices allow for the industrial scale processing of several thousand barrels per day.

Microwave method

Current research is being directed into using commercial microwave ovens to provide the heat needed in the transesterification process.The microwaves provide intense localized heating that may be higher than the recorded temperature of the reaction vessel. A continuous flow process producing 6 liters/minute at a 99% conversion rate has been developed and shown to consume only one-fourth of the energy required in the batch process.Although it is still in the lab-scale, development stage, the microwave method holds great potential to be an efficient and cost-competitive method for commercial-scale biodiesel production.

chassis is vital part of vehicle

2009-10-24T00:50:00.000-07:00

A chassis (plural: "chassis") (pronounced /ˈʃæsi, ˈtʃæsi/) consists of a framework that supports an inanimate object, analogous to an animal's skeleton, for example in a motor vehicle or a firearm.

Examples of use

In the case of vehicles, the term chassis means the frame plus the "running gear" like engine, transmission, driveshaft, differential, and suspension. A body (sometimes referred to as "coachwork"), which is usually not necessary for integrity of the structure, is built on the chassis to complete the vehicle. Commercial vehicle manufacturers may have “chassis only”, “cowl and chassis”, as well as "cab and chassis" versions that can be outfitted with specialized bodies. These include motor homes, fire engines, ambulances, box trucks, etc.

A chassis (pronounced TCHA-see or CHA-see ) is the physical frame or structure of an automobile, an airplane, a desktop computer, or other multi-component device. Case is very similar in meaning, but tends to connote the protective aspect of the frame rather than its structure. People tend to choose one term or the other. The rest of this definition uses chassis but applies as well to the term case . Both terms (and casing ) are derived from the Vulgate Latin for box . The plural form is also chassis .

1950s Jeep FC cowl and chassis for others to convert into finished vehicles.

A tank's chassis (hull) comprises the bottom part of the tank, which includes the tracks, engine, driver's seat, and crew compartment. This describes the lower hull, although common usage of "tank chassis" might include the upper hull to mean the tank without the gun turret. Tank chassis often serve as basis for tank-converted platforms such as armored personnel carriers, combat engineering vehicles, etc.

A chassis in a television, radio, or other electronic device consists of the metal frame on which the circuit boards and other electronics are mounted. In the absence of a metal frame the chassis refers to the circuit boards and components themselves, not the physical structure.

In computers, the chassis refers to the rigid framework onto which the motherboard, memory, disk drives, and other equipment are mounted. It also supports the shell-like case: the housing that protects all of the vital internal equipment from dust, moisture, and tampering. The term "case modding" refers to the artistic styling of otherwise rather functional and plain computer encasings. Main article: computer case for personal machines or rack mount for commercial grade servers.

Backbone chassis is a type of an automobile construction chassis that is similar to the body-on-frame design. Instead of a two-dimensional ladder type structure, it consists of a strong tubular backbone (usually rectangular in cross section) that connects the front and rear suspension attachment areas. A body is then placed on this structure. It is almost a trademark design feature of Czech(oslovak) Tatra heavy trucks (cross-country, military etc.), but this type of chassis is also often found on small sports cars. It also does not provide protection against side collisions, and has to be combined with a body that would compensate for this shortcoming.

Examples of cars using a backbone chassis include DeLorean DMC-12, Lloyd 600, Lotus Esprit and Europa, Škoda 420 Popular, Tatra T-87, Tatra T111, Tatra T148, Tatra T815 etc., as well as TVR S1. Some cars also use a backbone as a part of the chassis to strengthen it; examples include the Volkswagen Beetle and the Locost where the transmission tunnel forms a backbone.

The chassis is considered to be the most significant component of an automobile. Chassis is the most crucial element that gives strength and stability to the vehicle under different conditions. Apart from the strength and flexibility, it also gives design exclusivity to the automobile. It is the supporting frame of a vehicle to which the body of an engine, rear axle assemblies are affixed. It helps in keeping a vehicle rigid and provides low levels of noise, vibration and harshness throughout the automobile.

The technologies and processes used in manufacturing vehicular chassis over the last few decades have undergone tremendous changes because of the rising demands of consumers, mass scale production and urge to lessen the costs of chassis. Innovative advancements in technology have resulted in the production of strong, durable and corrosion resistant chassis. Steel monocoque chassis is the most sought after choice among the automobile manufacturers as it is economical, efficient and functions well with assembly-line type. Other types of chassis that are available in the market are ladder chassis, transmission mounts, monocoque chassis and backbone chassis.

Listings of some transport companies in uk,india,usa

2009-10-24T00:38:00.000-07:00

Dynamic International - International freight forwarder by air road or sea from UK. Also offers overseas removals and excess baggage services.
http://www.dynamic-freight-shipping.co.uk
more info...

Shiply - Offers a shipping comparison site were users can get multiple quotes from couriers & transport firms competing online.
http://www.shiply.com
more info...

B's Transport - Specialized in international removals, freight shipping and container shipping.
http://www.shipping-london.co.uk
more info...

Cars for Stars - A national operator providing chauffeur driven cars and limousine hire through a network & local offices.
http://www.limousine-services.net/
more info...

Elite - Specialized in providing international shipping and air freight services.
http://www.eliteshipping.co.uk/
more info...

Elwyn Taxis - Specialists in providing taxi services to the community in Conway, UK.
http://elwynstaxis.com/
more info...

Exotic - Offers limo hire across all of Northern Ireland.
http://www.exoticlimos.net/
more info...

Ferguson Transport - A transport and road haulage company based in Scotland.
http://www.fergusontransport.co.uk/
more info...

Inline Moves - Offers removals and storage services in London, UK.
http://www.inlinemoves.co.uk/
more info...

Inter Island - Offers a overseas shipping service for removals, products & just general goods.
http://www.interislandoverseas.co.uk
more info...

Key Air & Sea - Specialized in airfreight, seafreight or roadfreight in the UK.
http://www.keyair.co.uk
more info...

Limo Firm - Provides limousine hire services for all occasions.
http://www.thelimofirm.com/
more info...

Limousine Wales - Provides limousine and chauffeur hire services in the Newport and South Wales area.
http://www.limousinewales.co.uk/
more info...

MSC - A privately-owned container shipping line in United Kingdom.
http://www.mscuk.com/
more info...

Noel Zwecker - Specialists in refrigerated distribution through Ireland, United Kingdom and Europe.
http://www.zweckertransport.co.uk/
more info...

Orion - A UK company offering deep sea shipping, European transport, air freight and domestic haulage.
http://www.orionshipping.co.uk/
more info...

RSJ - A UK based multi-modal freight company incorporating air, ocean & road freight.
http://www.rsj-international.co.uk/
more info...

Transport for London - Specialized in planning and delivery of transport facilities, for goods moving services around London.
http://www.tfl.gov.uk
more info...

UKChauffeurs.com - Offers personalized limousine transportation service with professional integrity.
http://www.uk-chauffeurs.com/
more info...

UKLimoService.com - Offers limousines transportation and chauffeur service in London and the surrounding area.
http://www.uklimoservice.com/
more info...

UKM - Offers packing, storage, shipping and insurance service for personal effects, household goods, antiques, art & more.
http://unitedkingdommovers.com/
more info...

Worldwide Removals - A company that offers removal services all over the world.
http://www.worldwideremovals.net/
more info...

YesLimos - Provides a professional limousine hire service throughout the UK.
http://www.yeslimos.co.uk/

U.S. Dept. of Transportation - Serves the United States transportation systems.
http://www.dot.gov/
more info...

Penske Logistics - Specialized in chain management, transportation logistics and more.
http://www.penskelogistics.com/
more info...

Blackhawk Logistics - Offers warehouses and transportation resources to accomodate any possible logistics need.
http://www.blackhawklogistics.com
more info...

Boyd Bros. - Serves high-volume, time-sensitive shippers that demand time-definite delivery.
http://www.boydbros.com/
more info...

Fleet Boss - Provides fleet management systems for vehicle, truck and fleet tracking.
http://www.fleetboss.com
more info...

GPS North America - Provides GPS vehicle tracking solutions with real-time vehicle location, mapping and reporting.
http://www.gpsnorthamerica.com
more info...

Hanson Logistics - Provides temperature-controlled warehousing, transportation, distribution and web-based visibility.
http://www.hansonlogisticsgroup.com
more info...

Knight Transportation - A specialized transportation company offering a range of shipping services.
http://www.knighttransportation.com/
more info...

Luxury Transportation - Provides taxi and cab service from Orlando international airport.
http://www.orlandoshuttle.com
more info...

MCD - A company specialized in logistics management in Smyrna, TN.
http://www.mcdtrans.com/
more info...

Mercury - Provides services to transportation departments, government, transit, school, military, and corporate vehicle.
http://www.mercury-assoc.com
more info...

MyYellow - A provider of transportation services for business customers worldwide.
http://www.myyellow.com/
more info...

NTSB - An independent U.S. Federal agency that investigates every civil aviation accident in the United States.
http://www.ntsb.gov/
more info...

OPW - Offers a line of fueling equipment and global support.
http://petrovend.com
more info...

Panalpina - Handles domestic and international airfreight, sea freight, brokerage requirements, and logistics.
http://www.panalpina.com/usa/
more info...

RITA - Transportation-monitoring resources in Cambridge, MA.
http://www.bts.gov/
more info...

STI - Specialized in transportation and logistics in Fort Wayne, IN.
http://www.spectransinc.com/
more info...

Trade Bridge - Helps small businesses make the most of international trade.
http://www.itradebridge.com
more info...

Transcontainer - Offers personalized service to fulfill shipping requirements.
http://www.transcontainer.com/
more info...

Transinc - Specialists in group and event transportation in Chandler, Arizona.
http://www.transincaz.com/
more info...

TSA - Charged with protecting U.S. transportation systems to ensure freedom of movement for people and commerce.
http://www.tsa.gov/
more info...

USTransCom - Responsible for creating and implementing world-class global deployment and distribution solutions.
http://www.transcom.mil/

A-1 Packers and Movers

Packing and moving company offers packing moving service, warehousing, relocation, loading, unloading and car transportation services.

A. S. A. Enggi Plast

Manufacturer and supplier of storage tanks, FRP storage tanks, process piping ducting, FRP process piping ducting, FRP domes, FRP blowers, PVC floorings, industrial plastics, fabrication service, FRP flush doors and industrial blowers.

AB Sea Container Pvt. Ltd.

Engaged in offering logistic services, modular containers, shipping services, container leasing services, warehousing services, clearing and forwarding services, cargo and shipping agents, transportation services and maintenance services.

AC Cargo Management

This Company was established in the year 2001 having its Head Quarters at Cochin with an initial strength of 12 nos. long bodied containerized trucks. Within a short span of 3 years, the fleet strength of the Company has gone up to a total of hundred vehicles.

AFL

AFL has recently ushered in world class standards in domestic couriering for the first time in India through its latest offering, AFL WiZ.

AirMarine Freight Services Pvt. Ltd

Established in 2000, AirMarine International Freight Services (AirMarine) has has seen a promising growth and has also setup a huge clientele for itself. We at AirMarine, believe in providing the best. The most renowned business houses in the market have trusted us to be their representatives as far as freight forwarding services are concerned. We together can bring to you not just quality service but also bring you the same at an affordable price.

Aires Logistics

Aires Logistics specializes in the global shipping of Air, Sea cargo and sea cargo. Geographically we are based in Central Asia, but we operate worldwide.

Alang Shipping Services Private Limited

Since September 1997, we are serving to our various valued principals/ ship owners / managers / operators in capacity of Shipping Agents at Port of Alang, India. Our first attended vessel was namely M/V. Ocean Guard At Port of Alang, which arrived on 30.09.1997 for delivery to her buyers for demolition

Alba Packers and Movers

Providing services of packers and movers like household packing and unpacking, commercial goods packing and moving, countrywide transportation, car transportation by carrier, local relocation services.

Aman Packers and Movers

Packers and movers in India providing services like packaging moving services, commercial packing services, car transportation, household goods packaging, office goods packaging, goods relocation services and goods transportation.

american airlines services

2009-10-24T00:05:00.000-07:00

American Airlines, Inc. (AA) is a major airline of the United States. It is the world's largest airline in passenger miles transported and passenger fleet size; third largest, behind FedEx Express and Delta Air Lines, in aircraft operated; and second behind Air France-KLM in operating revenues.A subsidiary of the AMR Corporation, the airline is headquartered in Fort Worth, Texas, adjacent to the Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport.American operates scheduled flights throughout the United States, and flights to Canada, Latin America, the Caribbean, Europe, Japan, the People's Republic of China, and India. The Chairman, President, and CEO of AA is Gerard Arpey. In 2005, the airline flew more than 138 billion revenue passenger miles (RPM).

American Airlines serves four continents. Hubs at Dallas/Fort Worth and Miami serve as gateways to the Americas, while American's Chicago hub has become the airline's primary gateway to Europe and Asia. New York Kennedy (JFK) is a primary gateway for both the Americas and Europe, while New York La Guardia (LGA) is a regional hub. Lambert-St. Louis International Airport has served as a regional as well for several years. However, the airline's 2009 restructuring will lead to the airport being removed as a hub in the summer of 2010.American serves the second largest number of international destinations, second to Continental Airlines.

American is the only U.S. airline with scheduled flights to Anguilla, Bolivia, Dominica, Grenada, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, and Uruguay.

American has begun to expand in Asia, with mixed success. In 2005, American re-introduced a non-stop flight from Dallas/Fort Worth to Osaka-Kansai, which has since been discontinued. American also launched non-stop service from Chicago to Nagoya-Centrair, but that too ended within a year. Also in 2005, American launched service from Chicago to Delhi.In April 2006, American began service from Chicago to Shanghai, also profitably. However, in October 2006, American ceased its San Jose, California to Tokyo-Narita service, leaving LAX as American's sole international gateways on the West Coast. American planned flights between Dallas/Fort Worth and Beijing via Chicago-O'Hare (on Westbound only) in 2007 but lost its bid to United Airlines' Dulles to Beijing route. AA was granted permission in September 2007 to start a Chicago-Beijing route in a new set of China routes in 2009,but currently plans to begin service April 4, 2010.American Airlines delayed the launched of the new China route from April 4 to May 1, 2010.

Fleet

An American Boeing 757 landing at Vancouver International Airport

As of October 2009, the American Airlines fleet consists of 603 aircraft.

In August 2007 the airline announced it would offer Wi-fi in 767-200ER flights across the United States.On August 20, 2008, American Airlines became the first to offer full inflight internet service.

In October 2008, American announced plans to order the Boeing 787-9 Dreamliner.

American is the largest operator of the McDonnell Douglas MD-80, with some 300 of the type. As part of its fleet renewal plan, American is replacing one-fourth of its MD-80s with the Boeing 737-800, which offers a 35 percent increase per-seat mileage.The rest will eventually be replaced by Boeing's next generation narrow body aircraft, the Boeing Y1, which may not be until 2020 or later. American Airlines has stated that they have MD-80 leases running until as late as 2024.

In August 2009, American officially retired its fleet of Airbus A300 aircraft, after 21 years of service. American has not made plans to replace this fleet.CurrentAmerican Airlines had an average fleet age of 15.6 years in August 2009.

**American Airlines Fleet**
Aircraft	In Service	Orders	Purchase Rights	Passengers (First/Business/Economy)	Routes	IFE	Introduction	Notes
Boeing 737-800	96	76	0	Old Configuration: 148 (16/132) New Configuration: 160 (16/144)	North American short-medium haul, Caribbean, Mexico, South America(Venezuela) Most fly out of MIA, ORD, DFW, SJU and LAX	Overhead monitors, audio	1999	The oldest MD-82s and MD-83s are being replaced with 737-800s. The rest will be replaced with Boeing's 737 replacement (Y1)
Boeing 757-200	124	0	0	190 (24/166) 188 (22/166) 182 (16/166)	Domestic, Caribbean, South America, Hawaii, Europe Most fly out of MIA and DFW	Overhead monitors, audio	1989	All fitted with winglets To be fitted with new interiors 18 to be modified to an international version
Boeing 767-200ER	15	0	0	159 (10/30/119)	MIA to JFK, LAX and SFO JFK to LAX and SFO EWR to LAX	Personal media player offered in First and Business Class on transcontinental flights Overhead monitors and audio system in all classes	1986	All 15 aircraft are fitted with three classes and operate flagship service on transcontinental routes.
Boeing 767-300ER	58	0	0	225 (30/195)	Transatlantic, South America Hawaii, hub to hub domestic	Personal DVD Player offered in Business Class, Overhead monitors in Economy, audio in both classes	1988	5 fitted with winglets To be fitted with winglets Fitted with New Business Class.
Boeing 777-200ER	47	7^[49]	0	247 (16/37/194)	Transatlantic, transpacific, South America MIA-LAX, DFW-ORD, DFW-MIA (begins December 2009)	AVOD, Audio	1999	Fitted with Flagship Suites Fitted with New Business Class Fitted with AVOD in First/Business Class Fitted with AVOD in Economy class
Boeing 787-9	0	42 (see note)	58	TBD	Long haul	TBD	2013 (see note)	Boeing has confirmed that the 787-9 will not enter service before 2013 and AA forecasts that the first aircraft will be delivered in late 2013.
McDonnell Douglas MD-82	184	0	0	136 (16/120) 140 (16/124)	Short, Medium Haul Domestic, Mexico and Canada Most fly out of ORD, STL, and DFW	None	1983	Largest operator of the MD-82 Oldest being replaced by: Boeing 737-800 The rest will be replaced with Boeing's 737 replacement (Y1)
McDonnell Douglas MD-83	81	0	0	136 (16/120) 140 (16/124)	Short, medium haul domestic, Mexico and Canada Most fly out of ORD, STL, DFW, and BOS	None	1987	Largest operator of the MD-83 Oldest being replaced by: Boeing 737-800 The rest will be replaced with Boeing's 737 replacement (Y1)
Total	603	148	58

^{*Aircell Internet Broadband access is being installed on all Boeing 767-200 and Boeing 737-800 aircraft.}

AAdvantage is the frequent flyer program of American Airlines. Launched May 1, 1981, it was the first such loyalty program in the world, and remains the largest with more than 50 million members as of 2005.

Miles accumulated in the program allow members to redeem tickets, upgrade service class, or obtain free or discounted car rentals, hotel stays, merchandise, or other products and services through partners. The most active members, based on the amount and price of travel booked, are designated AAdvantage Gold, AAdvantage Platinum, and AAdvantage Executive Platinum elite members, with privileges such as separate check-in, priority upgrade and standby processing, or free upgrades. They also receive similar privileges from AA's partner airlines, particularly those in Oneworld.

History

DFW American Airlines Departure

Increased competition following the 1978 Airline Deregulation Act prompted airline marketing professionals to develop ways to reward repeat customers and build brand loyalty. The first idea at American, a special "loyalty fare", was modified and expanded to offer free first class tickets and upgrades to first class for companions, or discounted coach tickets. Membership was seeded by searching AA's SABRE computer reservations system for recurring phone numbers. The 130,000 most frequent flyers, plus an additional 60,000 members of AA's Admirals Club were pre-enrolled and sent letters with their new account numbers. The name was selected by AA's advertising agency, and is consistent with other American Airlines programs featuring "AA" in the name and logo. The logo was designed by Massimo Vignelli.The impact of the AA logo is strengthened by the fact that American Airlines was able in 1997 to buy the matching two letter internet domain aa.com. The amount of the transaction remains confidential. Only few corporations worldwide, among them 4 airlines own a two letter domain name. AA is also the company's IATA airline code.

Less than a week later, rival United Airlines launched its Mileage Plus program; other airlines followed in the ensuing months and years. The rapid appearance of competition changed the nature of the program, and as airlines began to compete on the features of their frequent flyer programs, AAdvantage liberalized its rules, established partnerships with hotel and rental car agencies, and offered promotions such as extra free beverages. In 1982 AAdvantage also became the first program to cooperate with an international carrier; members could accrue and redeem miles on British Airways flights to Europe.

In 2005 American Airlines joined other major US carriers in introducing an online shopping portal allowing shoppers to earn AAdvantage miles when shopping online.

Air Canada services

2009-10-23T23:53:00.000-07:00

Air Canada is Canada's largest airline and flag carrier. The airline, founded in 1936, provides scheduled and charter air transportation for passengers and cargo to 96 destinations worldwide. Its largest hub is Toronto Pearson International Airport in Ontario. Its main base is Montreal-Pierre Elliott Trudeau International Airport in Quebec.

Air Canada is the world's 8th largest passenger airline by fleet size, and the airline is a founding member of Star Alliance, an alliance of 21 member airlines formed in 1997. Air Canada's corporate headquarters are located in the Saint-Laurent area of Montreal, Quebec. The airline's parent company is the publicly traded firm ACE Aviation Holdings. Air Canada had passenger revenues of $9.7 billion in 2008

Canada's national airline originated from the Canadian federal government's 1936 creation of Trans-Canada Airlines (TCA), which began operating its first transcontinental routes in 1938. In 1965, TCA was renamed Air Canada following government approval. Following the 1980s deregulation of the Canadian airline market, the airline was privatized in 1988. In 2001, Air Canada acquired its largest rival, Canadian Airlines. In 2006, 34 million people flew with Air Canada as the airline celebrated its 70th anniversary.

aircraft, including the A319, A320, and A321 variations and Embraer Air Canada operates a fleet of Boeing 777, Boeing 767, and Airbus A330 wide-body jetliners on long-haul routes, and utilizes Airbus A320 familyE170/E190 family aircraft on short-haul routes. The carrier's subsidiaries include Air Canada Cargo, ground support services, and regional airline partners, including Air Canada Jazz (which is now completely spun-off) and Air Canada Jetz. Air Canada also provides vacation packages to over 90 destinations via Air Canada Vacations. Together with its regional carriers, the airline operates on average more than 1,375 scheduled flights a day.

Air Canada flies to 15 domestic destinations and 81 international destinations in 33 countries (including British overseas territories, Kingdom of the Netherlands, Overseas departments and territories of France and United States territories) across Asia, Americas, Europe and Oceania.

Air Canada has flown a number of 5th freedom routes (passenger and cargo rights between 2 non-Canadian destinations), only one of which is still operated (Santiago-Buenos Aires, during the winter season). Past 5th freedom routes have included: London Heathrow-Bombay-Singapore, London Heathrow-Delhi, London Heathrow-Nice, London Heathrow-Dusseldorf, Zurich-Delhi, Paris-Geneva, Honolulu-Sydney, and Honolulu-Melbourne

*New Routes by Air Canada & Air Canada Jazz*
Route	Start Date	Aircraft	Notes
Montreal-Houston	30 November	Bombardier CRJ705	Daily
Calgary-Honolulu	5 December	Boeing 767-300ER	2x weekly
Calgary-Maui	5 December	Boeing 767-300ER	3x weekly
Montreal-Fort Myers	6 December	Airbus A319	weekly
Montreal-Samana/El Catey	19 December	Airbus A319	weekly
Toronto-La Romana	19 December	Airbus A319	weekly
Ottawa-Turks & Caicos	21 December	Airbus A319	weekly
Montreal-Puerto Vallarta	25 December	Airbus A319	weekly
Vancouver-Varadero	25 December	Boeing 767-300ER	weekly
Halifax-Tampa	8 February	Airbus A319	weekly
Halifax-Samana/El Catey	11 February	Airbus A319	weekly
Montreal-Brussels	12 June	Boeing 767-300ER	Daily
Montreal-Athens	3 June	Boeing 767-300ER	3x weekly [seasonal]
Montreal-Barcelona	4 June	Boeing 767-300ER	3x weekly [seasonal]
Toronto-Athens	4 June	Boeing 767-300ER	3x weekly [seasonal]
Toronto-Barcelona	3 June	Boeing 767-300ER	3x weekly [seasonal]

Fleet

Air Canada Airbus A319-100.

Air Canada Airbus A320-200.

Air Canada Airbus A321-200.

Air Canada Airbus A330-300.

Air Canada Boeing 767-300ER.

Air Canada Boeing 777-300ER.

Air Canada Embraer 175.

Air Canada Embraer 190.

The Air Canada fleet consists of 202 aircraft, as of 14 August 2009. All aircraft are now fitted with the new interior, except 3 B767-300ERs, which will soon be retired. The new interior is a revamp of the cabin and the installation of individual video displays in both executive first and economy classes.

**Air Canada Fleet**
Aircraft	In Service	Orders	Options / Purchase Rights	Passengers (Business*/Economy)	Routes	Notes
Airbus A319-100	35	0	0	120 (14/106)	North America Caribbean Venezuela
Airbus A320-200	41	0	0	146 (14/132)	North America Caribbean
Airbus A321-200	10	0	0	174 (20/154)	North America Caribbean
Airbus A330-300	8	0	0	265(37/228)	Atlantic: Paris-Charles de Gaulle, Frankfurt, London-Heathrow, Zurich, Munich Pacific: Tokyo-Narita
Boeing 767-333ER	30	0	0	211 (24/187) 244	Atlantic Pacific South America Middle East Hawaii Occasional North American "heavy" flights.	3 to be converted to all-economy configuration for service to Athens and Barcelona beginning June, 2010
Boeing 777-233LR	6	0	18	270 (42/228)	Atlantic: Montreal - Frankfurt, Toronto- Frankfurt Pacific: Sydney, Hong Kong, Shanghai-Pudong (non-peak), Beijing (non-peak) Domestic: Calgary, Montreal, Toronto, Vancouver South America: São Paulo
Boeing 777-333ER	12	0	18	349 (42/307)	Atlantic: Paris-Charles de Gaulle, Frankfurt, London-Heathrow Pacific: Tokyo-Narita, Hong Kong, Shanghai-Pudong (peak), Beijing (peak) Domestic: Montreal, Toronto, Vancouver South America: São Paulo, as of December 2009, Santiago de Chile, Buenos Aires	The final B777-300ER has been delivered in a special 2010 Vancouver Olympics Livery.
Boeing 787-8	0	37	23	TBA	Atlantic Pacific South America Domestic	To enter service second half 2013
Embraer 175	15	0	0	73 (9/64)	North America
Embraer 190	45	0	60	93 (9/84)	North America Caribbean
Total	202	37	101

^{*Executive Class is offered on domestic flights, Executive First on international flights.}

Airbus A330-300 landing at London Heathrow Airport.

Air Canada has an average fleet age of 9.2 years, as of August 2009.
Air Canada was the first North American airline to operate the Embraer E175, Airbus A319, A340-300, A340-500, Boeing 777-200LR and Boeing 777-300ER aircraft.

Historic fleet

In 1963, Air Canada claimed to be the first major air carrier to have adopted turbine technology on its entire fleet for lower maintenance costs and higher productivity. It also claimed to be the first world airline to introduce jet freighter service using DC-8 equipment.

Air Canada was also one of the first airlines to have its entire fleet of unpressurised aircraft equipped with fixed oxygen systems for use by flight crew and passengers, using the rebreathing bag principle.

Air Canada's Airbus A340-500s (C-GKOL, fin 951 and C-GKOM, fin 952) were retired in August 2007 and replaced by Boeing 777-200LRs. They were then leased to TAM Airlines.^[45]
Air Canada's Airbus A340-300s were retired on 20 November 2008 when it landed in Montreal from London and replaced by Boeing 777-300ERs.^[46]
Air Canada's Boeing 767-200ER fleet was retired from service by the end of 2008.
The Boeing 767 involved in the Gimli incident (known as the "Gimli Glider") remained in service with Air Canada until it retired in 2008. The aircraft (C-GAUN) now sits at the Mojave Spaceport in California.^[47]
The McDonnell Douglas DC-10 aircraft operated from 1971-2001 were owned by Canadian Airlines.

Boeing 767-200ER, retired 2008.

Airbus A340-300, retired 2008.

The following is a list of aircraft that Air Canada has operated since 1937, and are now no longer in the fleet.

**Air Canada Operated Types**
Type	Used	Reference
Airbus A340-300	1995-2008
Airbus A340-500	2004-2007
Avro Lancastrian	1943-1947
BAe 146-200	1990-2005
Boeing 727-200	1974-1992
Boeing 737-200	1976-2004
Boeing 747-100	1971-1998
Boeing 747-200M (Combi)	1975-1999
Boeing 747-400	1990-2003
Boeing 747-400M (Combi)	1990-2004
Boeing 767-200(ER)	1983-2008
Bristol Freighter	1953-1955
Canadair North Star	1946-1961
Douglas DC-3	1945-1963
Douglas DC-8-40 -50 -60 -70	1960-1983
McDonnell Douglas DC-9-30	1966-2002
McDonnell Douglas DC-10	1971-2001
Fokker F28	1986-2004
Lockheed Super Constellation	1954-1963
Lockheed L-1011 -1 -15 -100 -500	1973-1996
Lockheed Model 10 Electra	1937-1941
Lockheed Model 14 Super Electra	1941-1949
Lockheed Model 18 Lodestar	1941-1949
Stearman	1937-1939
Vickers Vanguard	1961-1972
Vickers Viscount	1955-1974

On board

Air Canada has two classes of service on all aircraft. On longhaul international routes, Executive First and Economy Class are offered. Shorthaul and domestic routes feature Executive Class and Economy Class.

Air Canada Jazz features two classes of service, Executive and Economy Class, on CRJ-705 aircraft only. All other Jazz aircraft are one class service (Economy Class).

Executive First Suites (international)

Executive First Suites.

Executive First / Executive First Suites is Air Canada’s international business class product.

Executive First Suites (Project XM) are available on all A330-300, B777-300ER and B777-200LR aircraft and all but three B767-300ER aircrafts. The original Executive First class is available on the other three B767-300ER aircraft.

Executive First Suites (Project XM) feature electronic flat beds, in a 1–1–1 (B767-300ER and A330-300s) or 1–2–1 (all other aircraft) herringbone configuration with a 21-inch (0.533 m) seat width and a 6-foot-3-inch (1.91 m) seat pitch. The configuration is similar in layout to Virgin Atlantic's Upper Class Suite and Air New Zealand's Business Premier Class product. Entertainment is personal AVOD (Audio Video On Demand), while music is provided by XM satellite radio. Self-service bar areas and mood lighting are available on all B777-300ER and B777-200LR aircraft.

Executive First (Original) features electronic recliner seats reclining to 151°, with a width of 21 inches (0.53 m) and a pitch of 57 to 60 inches (1.4 to 1.5 m). Seat configuration is 1–2–2 or 2–2–1 seating on the 767-300ER aircraft, depending on tail fin. Entertainment provided is personal DVD player.

Executive First in-flight meal.

Executive Class (domestic)

Executive Class is Air Canada’s North American domestic first-class product.

Seat configuration varies between 1–2 (Embraers and Canadair-705s) or 2–2 (Airbuses). Recline is around 120° (Embraers and Canadair-705s) or 124° (Airbuses), with a width of 20 inches (0.51 m) (Embraers and Canadair-705s) or 21 inches (0.53 m) (Airbuses) and a pitch of 37 inches (0.94 m) (Canadair-705s) to 39 inches (0.99 m) (Embraers and Airbuses).

All seats feature AVOD and the new style cabin interiors. Music is provided by XM Satellite Radio.

Economy Class (international)

On-demand enRoute in-flight entertainment in Economy Class.

Dinner in international Economy Class.

Seats are pitched 31 inches (0.79 m) to 34 inches (0.86 m) with a width of 17.2 inches (0.44 m) to 18.5 inches (0.47 m) and a recline to around 6 inches (0.15 m).

On aircraft fitted with Economy Class (Project XM), entertainment is personal AVOD (audio-video on demand). On Economy Class (Original) aircraft, main screen entertainment is offered. Music on both types is provided by XM Satellite Radio.

Economy Class (domestic)

For flights to North America, Sun destinations, and the Caribbean, food and beverage is provided via the Onboard Café:

Cabin crew

Air Canada has made a change in uniform by changing the dark green for a midnight blue colour. The uniforms were designed by Canadian fashion designer Debbie Shuchat, at a presentation in the Toronto Pearson International Airport hangar, Celine Dion helped the newly-solvent airline debut its new image.

Maple Leaf Lounge

These lounges are open to passengers holding Executive First, or Executive Class tickets. Super Elite, and Star Alliance Gold passengers can also use the lounges. Prestige passengers may have access for a small fee, and so can members of Air Canada Maple Leaf Club, who pay for an annual membership.Select fare (Tango Plus & Latitude) and destination combinations purchased on Air Canada's website will also be given the option to add Maple Leaf Lounge access at the time of ticket holding.

Aeroplan

Aeroplan is Air Canada's frequent flier program. Miles are awarded to members, and can be used to purchase tickets on any Star Alliance airline, or other partners, such as some hotel chains. Unlike competing frequent flyer miles however, members must use their miles in a timely fashion, as the credits expire annually (if no transactions occurred within that year).

Air Canada Cargo

Please help improve this section by expanding it. Further information might be found on the talk page.

In Toronto, a new cargo terminal was completed in early 2002 which features modernised inventory and conveyor systems.

Air Canada Ground Handling Services

Air Canada Ground Handling Services (ACGHS) provides ground handling services to Air Canada, Jazz and a number of other carriers at their Canadian and US stations, but mainly at Canadian stations. Services covered include "above and below the wing" passenger and baggage handling services and ancillary services such as de-icing, ground support and equipment maintenance. (Subsidiary of Air Canada)^.

Aveos Fleet Performance Inc.

Formerly ACTS (Aero Technical Support & Services Inc.), Aveos is a full-service Maintenance, Repair and Overhaul (MRO) organisation that provides airframe, engine and component maintenance and various ancillary services to more than 100 customers. Major bases are in Montreal, Toronto, Winnipeg and Vancouver.

ACE Aviation Holdings Inc. (TSX:ACE.A) owns 75 per cent of Air Canada (TSX:AC.B) and 27.8 per cent of ACTS, after selling its remaining stake in 2007 to private equity firms Kohlberg Kravis Roberts and Co. and Sageview Capital for $723 million.

On 23 September 2008, ACTS, formerly Air Canada Technical Services, changed its name to Aveos Fleet Performance Inc. to reflect its new ownership structure. Air Canada remains its largest customer.

Air Canada Vacations

Air Canada Vacations offers sun, cruise and leisure vacation packages to the Caribbean, Florida, Hawaii, Mexico, Las Vegas, Central and South America, and Asia. (Subsidiary of Air Canada)

china airlines

2009-10-23T23:33:00.000-07:00

China Airlines, Limited is the flag carrier of the Republic of China (commonly known as "Taiwan"). The airline is not directly state-owned but is 54% owned by the China Aviation Development Foundation (中華航空事業發展基金會) which is owned by the Republic of China. Unlike other state-owned companies in the Republic of China, the chairperson of China Airlines does not report to the Legislative Yuan.

The airline, based at Taiwan Taoyuan International Airport and with headquarters in Taipei,flies to destinations in Asia, Europe, North America and Oceania. The airline started scheduled flights between Taiwan and mainland China on July, 2008. Most flights serving this market are concentrated at Shanghai, Guangzhou, Beijing, and Hong Kong. China Airlines has operated the Hong Kong route since 1967 which is the airline's most profitable market, generating 13.3% of its NT$121.9 billion (US$ 3.7 billion) revenue in 2006 with over 140 flights flown a week between Taipei, Kaohsiung and Hong Kong

List of China Airlines

Air China
China Southern Airlines
China Southwest Airlines
China Northwest Airlines
Yunnan Airlines

China Eastern Airlines
China Northern Airlines
Hainan Airlines
Shandong Airlines

Shanghai Airlines
Shenzhen Airlines
Xiamen Airlines
Xinhua Airlines

As of September 2009^[update] the China Airlines fleet consists of the following aircraft:

**China Airlines Fleet**
Aircraft Type	Number of Aircraft	Passenger Seats (F/J/C/Y)`	Scheduled Routes (as of 01SEP09)	Notes
Airbus A330-300	Short Haul 11	333 313 (-/36/-/277)	From Taipei Taoyuan to: Chengdu, Hong Kong-Bangkok, Denpasar, Fukuoka, Guam, Ho Chi Minh City, Hong Kong, Jakarta, Hong Kong-Jakarta, Kuala Lumpur, Manila, Nagoya, Nanjing, Ningbo, Osaka Kansai, Singapore-Surabaya, Tokyo Narita and Xiamen. From Kaohsiung to: Hangzhou, Hong Kong, Ningbo, Shanghai Pudong, and Shenzhen.	Plans to lease two more by the end of 2009.
Airbus A330-300	Long Haul 6	33A 307 (-/30/-/277)	From Taipei Taoyuan to: Brisbane, Delhi , Delhi-Rome (begins 01DEC09), Honolulu, Sydney, and selective short haul destinations.
Airbus A340-300	6	276 (-/30/-/246)	From Taipei Taoyuan to: Bangkok, Frankfurt, Ho Chi Minh City, Hong Kong, Manila, Bangkok-Rome (ends November 30 2009), Seoul Incheon, Tokyo Narita, Vancouver, Vienna and various charter routes to East Asia and Oceania.	To be replaced by Airbus A350-900XWB in 2015.
Airbus A350-900XWB	14 Order 6 Option	327 (-/36/-/291)		Entry into service: 2015. Replacing: Airbus A340.
Boeing B737-800	10	158 (-/-/8/150)	From Taipei Taoyuan to: Changsha, Denpasar, Hanoi, Hiroshima, Hong Kong, Jeju, Koror, Manila, Okinawa, Penang, Phnom Penh, Phuket, Sapporo New Chitose, Shenyang, Xi'an, Zhengzhou* and various charter routes to Japan and South East Asia. From Kaohsiung to: Bangkok, Denpasar, Hong Kong, Jeju*, Nagoya, and Singapore.	Also operated as seasonal charter.
Boeing B747-400	2nd Version 9	744 397 (14/-/64/319)	From Taipei Taoyuan to: Bangkok-Amsterdam, Beijing, Denpasar, Guangzhou, Hong Kong^, Tokyo Narita-Honolulu, Anchorage-New York JFK, San Francisco, Shanghai Pudong, Shenzhen and Tokyo Narita.
Boeing B747-400	3rd Version 4	74C 375 (12/49/-/314)	From Taipei Taoyuan to: Hong Kong^, Los Angeles, Tokyo Narita (CI 0100/1 Only), and selective short haul destinations.
Boeing B747-400F	20	Freight only	From Taipei Taoyuan to: Abu Dhabi, Anchorage, Bangkok, Colombo, Delhi, Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh City, Hong Kong, Houston, Jakarta, Manila, Nagoya, Osaka Kansai, Kuala Lumpur, Penang, Jakarta, Los Angeles, San Francisco, Seattle, Shanghai Pudong, Singapore, and Tokyo Narita. Via various stop(s) from Taipei Taoyuan to: Amsterdam, Atlanta, Chicago, Dallas-Fort Worth, Frankfurt, Ho Chi Minh City, Houston, Kuala Lumpur, Los Angeles, Luxembourg, Manchester, Miami, Milan, New York JFK, Penang, Prague, San Francisco,Seattle, Singapore and Stockholm. From Kaohsiung to: Anchorage and Hong Kong.	Cargo division 2 of which are stored
Embraer E190	Wet Leased	104 (-/-/-/104)	From Taipei Taoyuan to: Cebu, Chiang Mai, Kalibo and Yangon. From Kaohsiung to: Manila** and Seoul Incheon. From Taichung to: Hangzhou and Ningbo*.	Wet leased from Mandarin Airlines.

` F - First Class Seats, J - Dynasty Supreme Seats, C - Dynasty Class Seats, Y - Economy Class Seats.
* Operated as Mandarin Airlines. ** Operated by Mandarin Airines.
^ First Class service is not available for Hong Kong and the cabin is sold and used as Dynasty Class. Upper deck of 74A is occasionally sold and used as Economy Class for Hong Kong.

As of June 2009^[update] the average age of the China Airlines fleet is 6.7 years. China Airlines has the world's largest fleet of Boeing 747-400Fs.

Two of their earliest 747-400s (B-18271 and B-18272) have been given to Boeing and converted to Boeing LCFs for transportation of 787 parts. In return, four new 747-400s were delivered to China Airlines. The livery of one of the new 747s (B-18210) is a combination of the China Airlines plum blossom tail and Boeing's Dreamliner colors design. These were the four last passenger 747-400s to be manufactured and delivered, and feature the Boeing Signature interior in common with the 747-400ER and most notably the Boeing 777.

In an interview with Taiwan's Economic Daily newspaper, China Airlines' CEO announced a cabin upgrade of all the airline's Boeing 747-400s in the second half of 2008, at a cost of around $7 billion Taiwan dollars. The 747-400s will be have two new configurations, with six of the 13 planes in a two class configuration of Dynasty (Business) Class and Economy Class for flights to regional destinations in Asia and to Amsterdam, and the other nine planes in a three class configuration of First Class, Dynasty (Business) Class and Economy Class for long haul flights to America.

The airline is undergoing a fleet renewal and simplification program. The A300-600R has been replaced with the A330-300 and there are plans for a long-haul fleet renewal. However, analysts and the media have twice preemptively stated that China Airlines intends to order the Boeing 747-8i to replace their older 747-400s and Airbus A340-300s. China Airlines refuted the claims on both occasions. Prior to Lufthansa's becoming the launch customer for the 747-8i, it was strongly speculated that China Airlines could be a possible launch customer.

Questioned about the airline's long haul fleet renewal plan, the CEO revealed that one model from Airbus and Boeing will be selected and evaluated, with China Airlines looking at Airbus's A380 and A350 and Boeing's 747-8 and 787. He has specified that the airline will not select the Boeing 777. China Airlines was reported to have decided on six Boeing 787s on July 18, 2007; however, this report, like the previous 747-8i reports, was quickly rejected by the airline. On December 11, 2007, China Airlines signed a letter of intent to purchase 20 Airbus A350-900s to replace their fleet of Airbus A340s, and the order was confirmed on January 22, 2008. The A350 will offer 2-class (Business and Economy) service with 327 seats.

Cabin

Cabin classes

Aircraft type	First Class Cabin	Dynasty Supreme or Dynasty Cabin	Economy Cabin	Notes
Airbus A330-300	N/A	36 shelled seats with 52" pitch and 140° recline. 10.4" PTV w/AVOD.	277 seats with 31-32" pitch. 6.5" PTV w/AVOD. Seats are ergonomically designed for comfort. AB Seats have better pitch than DEFG and JK.
Airbus A330-300	N/A	30 shelled seats with 63" pitch and 166° recline. 10.4" PTV w/AVOD.
Airbus A340-300	N/A	30 seats with 60" pitch and 150° recline. 10.4" PTV w/AVOD.	246 seats with 31-32" pitch. 6.5" PTV w/AVOD. Seats are ergonomically designed for comfort.	To be replaced by A350-900XWB in 2015.
Boeing B737-800	N/A	8 seats with 40" pitch and minimal recline. No personal TV. LCD screens are dropped from the ceilings every 3-4 rows.	150 seats with 31" pitch. No personal TV. LCD screens are dropped from the ceilings every 3-4 rows.
Boeing B747-400	14 seats with 83" pitch and 180° lie-flat sleeper. 6" PTV w/o AVOD.	64 seats with 47-50" pitch and 130° recline. 6" PTV w/o AVOD.	319 seats with 31-32" pitch. No personal TV. Video screen on walls and monitor above different rows in the aisle.	All aircraft to be renovated with dates undetermined.
Boeing B747-400	12 suite seats with 83" pitch and 180° recline. 15" PTV w/AVOD.	49 seats with 60" pitch and 140° recline. 10.4" PTV w/AVOD. Leather Seats.	314 seats with 31-32" pitch. 6.5" PTV w/AVOD. Seats are ergonomically designed for comfort.	B-18210 featured China Airlines plum blossom tail and Boeing's Dreamliner colors design.
Embraer E190	N/A	N/A	104 seats with 31-32" pitch and minimal recline. No personal TV. LCD screens are dropped from the ceilings every 3-4 rows.	Wet leased from Mandarin Airlines.

In-flight entertainment

"Fantasy Sky", the in-flight entertainment system, is available on all aircraft with Audio video on demand (AVOD). The AVOD system contains television shows, songs, video games, as well as aircraft exterior views (such as the nose wheel). The AVOD system is available in three languages: English, Japanese, and Mandarin. China Airlines intends to fit Fantasy Sky entertainment systems on all the B747-400s by the end of 2009.
DYNASTY is the China Airlines in-flight magazine. It has articles in English, Chinese and Japanese featuring local and international events, descriptive culture, social introductions, and personal interviews.
Sky Boutique is the duty free sales magazine. Text is in English, Chinese and Japanese.

In-flight catering

Dynasty Class dinner

Pre-flight drinks and mixed nuts are available in First, Dynasty Supreme, and Dynasty Cabin.
Alcohols and beverages are not offered on flights less than 180 minutes (only coffee, tea and water) in Economy class. Those drinks are available in the premium cabins regardless of flight duration.
Refreshments (also known as light meals) or Snack Boxes are offered on all international flights operated by China Airlines.
A standard five-course meal is available in First Class cabin on all flights. A standard three-course meal is available in Dynasty Supreme or Dynasty cabin.
Snacks are available upon request in Economy cabin but are usually not available if the flight duration is less than 180 minutes. Snacks are usually cookies, crackers, mix nuts, and instant noodles.
For First, Dynasty Supreme, and Dynasty cabin, refreshments and snacks of better quality are available upon request.

Dynasty Flyer

Dynasty Flyer is China Airlines' frequent flyer program. There are four tiers where three elite tiers are Gold, Emerald, and Paragon. Members can qualify for these elite tiers by earning enough air miles and/or segments within 12 calendar months. Elite members have more privileges such as access to the VIP Lounge, a higher checked baggage allowance, and being able to upgrade their ticket to a different cabin. A one way flight is counted as 1 segment unless the air mile denoted by IATA is less than 500 (such as TPE-OKA), where 0.8 segments will be used instead. All elite memberships last two year and soft landings are available.

Dynasty

There is no requirement in this tier. However an application must be made to China Airlines to join for mileage and segment accruals.Golder is achieved when 40,000 air miles have been accrued or 10 segments in paid First (F/A), Dynasty Supreme (J/D), or Dynasty Cabin (C/D) with China Airlines and/or Mandarin Airlines. Renewal is achieved when 55,000 air miles are achieved or 20 segments in paid First (F/A), Dynasty Supreme (J/D), or Dynasty Cabin (C/D) with China Airlines and/or Mandarin Airlines within membership validity.

Additional benefits are offered such as birthday month miles, dedicated check-in counter or guaranteed business class check-in counter on all destinations served by China Airlines, 10 kg extra luggage (1 piece if traveling to/from North America w/weight based on cabin traveled), Business Class lounge access, priority baggage handling, and priority wait list.

Emerald

Tier is achieved at 110,000 air miles and four segments, or 40 segments in paid First (F/A), Dynasty Supreme (J/D), or Dynasty Cabin (C/D) with China Airlines and/or Mandarin Airlines.

In additional to benefits in Gold Tier, benefits offered are qualification gifts, dedicated hotlines, First Class lounge access, 72 hours seat verification, duty free items discount, free lounge access for one guest, and free spouse upgrades.

air filters for vehicles

2009-10-23T23:14:00.000-07:00

A particulate air filter is a device composed of fibrous materials which removes solid particulates such as dust, pollen, mold, and bacteria from the air. A chemical air filter consists of an sorbent or cataylst for the removal of airborne molecular contaminents such as volatile organic compounds or ozone. Air filters are used in applications where air quality is important, notably in building ventilation systems and in engines.

Some buildings, as well as aircraft and other man-made environments (e.g., satellites and space shuttles) use foam, pleated paper, or spun fiberglass filter elements. Another method uses fibers or elements with a static electric charge, which attract dust particles. The air intakes of internal combustion engines and compressors tend to use either paper, foam, or cotton filters. Oil bath filters have fallen out of favor. The technology of air intake filters of gas turbines has improved significantly in recent years, due to improvements in the aerodynamics and fluid-dynamics of the air-compressor part of the Gas Turbines.

The combustion air filter prevents abrasive particulate matter from entering the engine's cylinders, where it would cause mechanical wear and oil contamination.

Most fuel injected vehicles use a pleated paper filter element in the form of a flat panel. This filter is usually placed inside a plastic box connected to the throttle body with an intake tube.

Older vehicles that use carburetors or throttle body fuel injection typically use a cylindrical air filter, usually a few inches high and between 6 and 16 inches in diameter. This is positioned above the carburetor or throttle body, usually in a metal or plastic container which may incorporate ducting to provide cool and/or warm inlet air, and secured with a metal or plastic lid.

Paper

Pleated paper filter elements are the nearly exclusive choice for automobile engine air cleaners, because they are efficient, easy to service, and cost-effective. The "paper" term is somewhat misleading, as the filter media are considerably different from papers used for writing or packaging, etc. There is a persistent belief amongst tuners, fomented by advertising for aftermarket non-paper replacement filters, that paper filters flow poorly and thus restrict engine performance. In fact, as long as a pleated-paper filter is sized appropriately for the airflow volumes encountered in a particular application, such filters present only trivial restriction to flow until the filter has become significantly clogged with dirt.

Foam

Oil-wetted polyurethane foam elements are used in some aftermarket replacement automobile air filters. Foam was in the past widely used in air cleaners on small engines on lawnmowers and other power equipment, but automotive-type paper filter elements have largely supplanted oil-wetted foam in these applications. Depending on the grade and thickness of foam employed, an oil-wetted foam filter element can offer minimal airflow restriction or very high dirt capacity, the latter property making foam filters a popular choice in off-road rallying and other motorsport applications where high levels of dust will be encountered.

Cotton

Oiled cotton gauze is employed in a small number of aftermarket automotive air filters marketed as high-performance items. In the past, cotton gauze saw limited use in original-equipment automotive air filters.

Oil Bath

An oil bath air cleaner consists of a round base bowl containing a pool of oil, and a round insert which is filled with fibre, mesh, foam, or another coarse filter media. When the cleaner is assembled, the media-containing body of the insert sits a short distance above the surface of the oil pool. The rim of the insert overlaps the rim of the base bowl. This arrangement forms a labyrinthine path through which the air must travel in a series of U-turns: up through the gap between the rims of the insert and the base bowl, down through the gap between the outer wall of the insert and the inner wall of the base bowl, and up through the filter media in the body of the insert. This U-turn takes the air at high velocity across the surface of the oil pool. Larger and heavier dust and dirt particles in the air cannot make the turn due to their inertia, so they fall into the oil and settle to the bottom of the base bowl. Lighter and smaller particles are trapped by the filtration media in the insert, which is wetted by oil droplets aspirated thereinto by normal airflow.

Oil bath air cleaners were very widely used in automotive and small-engine applications until the widespread industry adoption of the paper filter in the early 1960s. Such cleaners are still used in off-road equipment where very high levels of dust are encountered, for oil bath air cleaners can sequester a great deal of dirt relative to their overall size, without loss of filtration efficacy or airflow. However, the liquid oil makes cleaning and servicing such air cleaners messy and inconvenient, they must be relatively large to avoid excessive restriction at high airflow rates, and they tend to increase exhaust emissions of unburned hydrocarbons due to oil aspiration when used on spark-ignition engines

High speed railways and trains

2009-10-23T22:52:00.000-07:00

Railways were the first form of land mass transportation, and until the development of the motorcar in the early 20th century had an effective monopoly on land transport. Railway companies in Europe and the United States used streamlined trains since 1933 for high speed services with an average speed of up to 130 km/h (80 mph) and top speed of more than 160 km/h (100 mph). Both streamlined steam locomotives and high-speed EMUs were used for high speed services.

In 1957, the Odakyu Electric Railway in Greater Tokyo launched its Romancecar 3000 SSE. This set a world record for narrow gauge trains at 145 km/h (90 mph), giving Japanese designers confidence they could safely and reliably build even faster trains at standard gauge. Desperate for transport solutions due to overloaded trains between Tokyo and Osaka, Japan, the idea of high speed rail was born.

The world's first contemporary high volume capable (initially 12 car maximum) "high-speed train" was Japan's Tōkaidō Shinkansen, that officially opened in October 1964, with construction commencing in April 1959. The 0 Series Shinkansen, built by Kawasaki Heavy Industries, achieved maximum passenger service speeds of 210 km/h (130 mph) on the Tokyo–Nagoya–Kyoto–Osaka route, with earlier test runs hitting top speeds in 1963 at 256 km/h.

In Europe, high-speed rail started during the International Transport Fair in Munich in June 1965, when DB Class 103 hauled a total of 347 demonstration trains at 200 km/h between Munich and Augsburg. The first regular service at this speed was the TEE "Le Capitole" between Paris and Toulouse with specially adapted SNCF Class BB 9200 locomotives.

Definition of high-speed rail

The UIC (International Union of Railways) defines high-speed rail as services which regularly operate at or above 250 km/h on new tracks, or 200 km/h on existing tracks. A number of characteristics are common to most high-speed rail systems. Most are electrically driven via overhead lines, although this is not necessarily a defining aspect and other forms of propulsion, such as diesel locomotives may be used, as on Britain's HST services. A definitive aspect is the use of continuous welded rail which reduces track vibrations and discrepancies between rail segments enough to allow trains to pass at speeds in excess of 200 km/h. Curve radius will often be the ultimate limiting factor in a train's speed, with passenger discomfort often more important than the danger of derailment. Depending on design speed, banking and the forces deemed acceptable to the passengers, curves often exceed a 5 kilometre radius. Although a few exceptions exist, zero grade crossings is a policy adopted almost worldwide, with advanced switches using very low entry and frog angles. Magnetic levitation trains fall under the category of high-speed rail due to their association with track oriented vehicles; however their inability to operate on conventional railroads often leads to their classification in a separate category.

German designed third generation ICE on Cologne-Frankfurt high-speed rail line

500 Series Shinkansen in Japan

In both Japan and France the initial impetus for the introduction of high speed rail was the need for additional capacity to meet increasing demand for passenger rail travel. By the mid-1950s, the Tōkaidō Main Line in Japan was operating at full capacity, and construction of the first segment of the Tōkaidō Shinkansen between Tokyo and Osaka started in 1959. The Tōkaidō Shinkansen opened on October 1, 1964, in time for the Tokyo Olympics. The situation for the first line in Japan was different than the subsequent lines. The route was already so densely populated and rail oriented that highway development would be extremely costly, and that one single line between Tokyo and Osaka could bring service to over half the nation's population. In 1959 that was nearly 45 million people; today it is well over 65 million. The Tokaido Shinkansen line is the most heavily traveled high speed line in the world, and still transports more passengers than all other high speed rail lines in the world combined, including in Japan. The subsequent lines in Japan had a rationale more similar to situations in Europe.

In France the main line between Paris and Lyon was projected to run out of capacity by 1970, so it was decided to build a new line. In both cases the choice to build a completely separate passenger-only line allowed for the much straighter higher speed lines. The dramatically reduced travel times on both lines, bringing cities within three hours of one another, caused explosions in ridership. It was the commercial success of both lines that inspired those countries and their economies to expand or start high speed rail networks.

In the United States the decades after World War II, improvements in automobiles and aircraft, severe antitrust restrictions on railroads, and government subsidization of highways and airports made those means practical for a greater portion of the population than previously.In Europe and Japan, emphasis was given to rebuilding the railways after the war. In the United States, emphasis was given to building a huge national interstate highway system and airports. Urban mass transport systems in the United States were largely eschewed in favor of road expansion.The U.S. railways have been less competitive partly because the government has tended to favour road and air transportation more than in Japan and European countries, and partly because of lower population density in the United States, but as energy costs increase, rail ridership is increasing across the country is expensive, because conventional trains are more fuel efficient than cars when ridership is high, similar to other forms of mass transit.Very few high-speed trains consume Travel by rail becomes more competitive in areas of higher population density or where gasolinediesel or other fossil fuels but the power stations that provide electric trains with power can consume fossil fuels. In Japan and France, where the most extensive high speed rail networks exist, a large proportion of electricity comes from nuclear power.Even using electricity generated from coal or oil, trains are more fuel efficient per passenger per kilometer travelled than the typical automobile because of efficiencies of scale and in generator technology.Rail networks, like highways, require large fixed capital investments and thus require a blend of high density and government investment to be competitive against existing capital infrastructure for aircraft and automobiles. Urban density and mass transit have been key factors in the success of European and Japanese railway transport, especially in countries such as the Netherlands, Belgium, Germany, Switzerland, SpainFrance

Although comfort over air travel is often believed to be a trait of high speed rail, it is not inherent, it depends on the specific implementation. For example, high speed trains, which are not subject to compulsory reservation, may carry some standing passengers. Airplanes do not allow standing passengers, so excess passengers are denied boarding. Train passengers can have the choice between standing or waiting for a bookable connection.

Larger number of target areas

From the operator's point of view, a single train can call in at multiple stops, often far more stops than aircraft, and each stop takes much less down time. One train stopping pattern can allow a multitude of possible journeys, increasing the potential market.

Energy efficiency

High speed trains are similar in energy efficiency to aircraft or better. Two sources: 1. DOE data in watt-hours per passenger-mile Amtrak = 780, transit = 819, commuter = 881, planes = 959; 2. Lancaster Environmental impact of high-speed rail lists liters/seat as equivalent for planes and high speed trains. However a 1997 EC study on page 74 claims 18.00 kWh/train-km for the TGV Duplex assuming 3 intermediate stops between Paris and Lyon. This equates to 64.80 MJ/train-km. With 80% of the 545 seats filled on average this is 0.15 MJ/passenger-km. This corresponds to 67 watt-hours per passenger-mile. When electricity generation losses are included this becomes 200 watt-hours per passenger-mile, almost 4 times less than the Amtrak estimate. This is in agreement with the independent transportation researcher David Lawyer who finds that trains are approximately 3 times more energy-effective than planes. The source of energy may result in less carbon dioxide emissions, however this depends on each implementation's actual usage patterns and their indirect effects. Short-haul energy requirements for transporting people are generally more competitive on trains than long haul (where rail competes best on time), because takeoff and landing have proportionately high energy requirements per km versus cruising. Also, high speed trains receive power from stationary electrical generation facilities, which can be engineered to emit less carbon dioxide.

Safety

From the point of view of required traffic control systems and infrastructure, high-speed rail has the added advantage of being much simpler to control due to its predictable course, even at very high passenger loads; this issue is becoming more relevant as air traffic reaches its safe limit in busy airspaces over London, New York, and other large centers. However, it must be noted that high speed rail systems eliminate the possibility of traffic collisions with automobiles (adding cost, simplicity, and safety), while other systems do not.

Maximum speed records

South Korea's independently developed HSR-350x (also known as Korean G7), reaches a maximum speed of 352.4 km/h.

Next generation model of South Korea's KTX-II operated by Korail

Shinkansen N700 Series on Nozomi service

The term "maximum speed" has many meanings here. It can reflect:

maximum scheduled speed between two scheduled stops
maximum speed at which a train is allowed to run safely as set by law or policy on a straight section with minimal constraints (MOR)
the maximum speed at which an unmodified train is capable of running
the maximum speed a specially modified train is capable of running.

A one time specially modified system and trainset record (see land speed record for railed vehicles) was set by the manned TGV's 574.8 km/h run, however it is far from a typical situation. The sheer amount of smoke emitted from the train is evidence that it was meant for proof of concept and not for passenger runs. Safety, cost, reliability, mass production are major concerns for high speed rail engineers and designers, which would not allow such conditions in a scheduled passenger run. The record for railed vehicles however is 10,325 km/h (6,416 mph) by an unmanned rocket sled by the United States Air Force.

The maximum speed an unmodified train is capable of running was set by the non-wheeled 581 km/h JR-Maglev MLX01 run in 2003. However, even this is not necessarily suitable for passenger operation as there can be concerns such as noise, cost, deceleration time in an emergency, etc.

The fastest maximum operating speed (MOR) of ANY segment of any high speed rail line, currently 350 km/h (217 mph), a record held by China. It is Beijing–Tianjin Intercity Rail which links Beijing to neighbouring Tianjin (117 km in 30 minutes). The trains have shown an unmodified capability of running 394 km/h in tests, and thus have been set to run 350 km/h in normal operation. That rail line went into operation on August 1, 2008.

The highest scheduled average speed between two scheduled stops is held by TGV and ICE service on part of the TGV Est Line in France at 279.4 km/h (173.6 mph) from Lorraine-TGV to Champagne-Ardennes-TGV (167.66 km in 36 min) and Nozomi Shinkansen at 261.8 km/h (162.7 mph) from Hiroshima to Kokura according to the official Railway Gazette International World Speed Survey study in 2005. With the introduction of the new N700 Shinkansen on July 1, 2007, the Kokura to Hiroshima time may have decreased further.

The highest speed in a tunnel was obtained in the new TAV line Bologna-Florence on January 3, 2009: an ETR 500 "Frecciarossa" reached 362 km/h inside the Mount Babele tunnel

Hybrid vehicles technology

2009-10-23T22:32:00.000-07:00

A hybrid vehicle is a vehicle that uses two or more distinct power sources to move the vehicle.The term most commonly refers to hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), which combine an internal combustion engine and one or more electric motors.
Power sources for hybrid vehicle include:

On-board or out-board rechargeable energy storage system (RESS)
Gasoline or Diesel fuel
Hydrogen
Compressed air
Liquid nitrogen
Human powered e.g. pedaling or rowing
Wind
Compressed or liquefied natural gas
Solar
Waste heat from internal combustion engine. This can be converted to steam or electricity (eg via Stirling engine or Thermogenerator) to increase vehicle propulsion. The extra power may also be used for supplemental systems (eg cooling for cool-trucks, ...)
Coal, wood, Biochar or other solid combustibles
Electromagnetic fields, Radio waves

Hybrid power trains are used for diesel-electric or turbo-electric railway locomotives, buses, heavy goods vehicles, mobile hydraulic machinery, and ships. Typically some form of heat engine (usually diesel) drives an electric generator or hydraulic pump which powers one or more electric or hydraulic motors. There are advantages in distributing power through wires or pipes rather than mechanical elements especially when multiple drives—e.g. driven wheels or propellers—are required. There is power lost in the double conversion from typically diesel fuel to electricity to power an electric or hydraulic motor. With large vehicles the advantages often outweigh the disadvantages especially as the conversion losses typically decrease with size. With the exception of non nuclear submarines, presently there is no or relatively little energy storage capacity on most heavy vehicles, e.g. auxiliary batteries and hydraulic accumulators—this is changing.

Rail transport

Main article: Hybrid locomotive

Europe
An example of a typical "hybrid" is the new Autorail à grande capacité (AGC or high-capacity railcar) built by the Canadian company Bombardier for service in France. This has dual mode (diesel and electric motors) and dual voltage capabilities (1500 and 25000 V) allowing it to be used on many different rail systems.

Iran
The First Hybrid Evaluating prototype locomotive was designed and contracted by railway research center MATRAI in 1999 and the sample was ready in 2000. it was a G12 locomotive that was converted to hybrid by using a 200KW diesel generator and batteries and also was equipped with 2 AC traction motors (out of 4) retrofited in the cover of the DC traction motors. It was inaugurated by missed Dr. Dadman the minister of road and transportation in 2001.

Japan
The first operational prototype of a hybrid train engine with significant energy storage and energy regeneration capability was introduced in Japan as the KiHa E200. It utilizes battery packs of lithium ion batteries mounted on the roof to store recovered energy.

North America
In the U.S., General Electric introduced a prototype railroad engine with their "Ecomagination" technology in 2007. They store energy in a large set of sodium nickel chloride (Na-NiCl₂) batteries to capture and store energy normally dissipated during dynamic braking or coasting downhill. They expect at least a 10% reduction in fuel use with this system and are now spending about $2 billion/yr on hybrid research.

Variants of the typical diesel electric locomotive include the Green Goat (GG) and Green Kid (GK) switching/yard engines built by Canada's Railpower Technologies. They utilize a large set of heavy duty long life (~10 yr) rechargeable lead acid (Pba) batteries and 1000 to 2000 HP electric motors as the primary motive sources and a new clean burning diesel generator (~160 Hp) for recharging the batteries that is used only as needed. No power or fuel are wasted for idling—typically 60–85% of the time for these type locomotives. It is unclear if dynamic braking (regenerative) power is recaptured for reuse; but in principle it should be easily utilized.

Since these engines typical need extra weight for traction purposes anyway the battery pack's weight is a negligible penalty. In addition the diesel generator and battery package are normally built on an existing "retired" "yard" locomotive's frame for significant additional cost savings. The existing motors and running gear are all rebuilt and reused. Diesel fuel savings of 40–60% and up to 80% pollution reductions are claimed over that of a "typical" older switching/yard engine. The same advantages that existing hybrid cars have for use with frequent starts and stops and idle periods apply to typical switching yard use. "Green Goat" locomotives have been purchased by Canadian Pacific Railway, BNSF Railway, Kansas City Southern Railway and Union Pacific Railroad among others.

Railpower Technologies Corp. engineers working with TSI Terminal Systems Inc. in Vancouver, British Columbia are testing a hybrid diesel electric power unit with battery storage for use in Rubber Tyred Gantry (RTG) cranes. RTG cranes are typically used for loading and unloading shipping containers onto trains or trucks in ports and container storage yards. The energy used to lift the containers can be partially regained when they are lowered. Diesel fuel and emission reductions of 50–70% are predicted by Railpower engineers.First systems are expected to be operational in 2007.

Road Transport, Commercial Vehicles

GM has launched hybrid versions of its full-size GMC Yukon (pictured) and Chevrolet Tahoe SUVs for 2008

Early hybrid systems are being investigated for trucks and other heavy highway vehicles with some operational trucks and buses starting to come into use. The main obstacles seem to be smaller fleet sizes and the extra costs of a hybrid system are yet compensated for by fuel savings, but with the price of oil set to continue on its upward trend, the tipping point may be reached by the end of 1995. Advances in technology and lowered battery cost and higher capacity etc. developed in the hybrid car industry are already filtering into truck use as Toyota, Ford, GM and others introduce hybrid pickups and SUVs. Kenworth Truck Company recently introduced a hybrid-electric truck, called the Kenworth T270 Class 6 that for city usage seems to be competitive.FedEx and others are starting to invest in hybrid delivery type vehicles—particularly for city use where hybrid technology may pay off first. Since 2002, the U.S. military has been testing serial hybrid Humvees and have found them to deliver faster acceleration, a stealth mode with low thermal signature/ near silent operation, and greater fuel economy.

Ships

Ships with both mast-mounted sails and steam engines were an early form of hybrid vehicle. Another example is the diesel-electric submarine. This runs on batteries when submerged and the batteries can be re-charged by the diesel engine when the craft is on the surface.

Newer hybrid ship-propulsion schemes include large towing kites manufactured by companies such as SkySails. Towing kites can fly at heights several times higher than the tallest ship masts, capturing stronger and steadier winds.

Aircraft

Delta Air Lines is going to be turning their Boeing 737NGs into hybrids in early 2010 by mounting the WheelTug ground propulsion system on their fleet of Boeing 737NGs . By using the APU, which is powered by a turbine, to power a Chorus Motor mounted on the landing gear for ground movement, Delta Air Lines will be creating a hybrid configuration by ceasing to use the main engines for anything but take off, landing, and flight.

Boeing 737-800

The Boeing Fuel Cell Demonstrator Airplane has a Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) fuel cell/lithium-ion battery hybrid system to power an electric motor, which is coupled to a conventional propeller. The fuel cell provides all power for the cruise phase of flight. During takeoff and climb, the flight segment that requires the most power, the system draws on lightweight lithium-ion batteries.

The demonstrator aircraft is a Dimona motor glider, built by Diamond Aircraft Industries of Austria, which also carried out structural modifications to the aircraft. With a wing span of 16.3 meters (53.5 feet), the airplane will be able to cruise at approximately 100 kilometers per hour (62 miles per hour) on power from the fuel cell.

Hybrid helicopter

Olney, TX—Test pilots have been putting a hybrid helicopter-airplane through its paces in recent weeks. The CarterCopter is a fixed-wing aircraft still in development that its designers claim will be able to fly 230 mph at sea level and use its rotor for vertical takeoff and landing (see Design News, 1/8/96, p. 68). The five-seat craft avoids rotor stability problems at high speed by powering the rotor only prior to takeoff, then putting it in autorotation during flight, like a gyrocopter. The high-inertia, bearingless, two-bladed rotor has a continuous composite structure, comprising blades and hub. With its freewheeling rotor, the craft's thrust comes from a conventionally-mounted GM V6 pusher-propeller engine, allowing designers to claim a top speed of 400 mph at 50,000 feet and a range of 2,000 miles.

Airplane enthusiasts at the EAA AirVenture '99 conference in Oshkosh, WI, this July got to see the CarterCopter on the ground, but not in demonstration flight. The plane flew most recently on June 11, when it performed a 4 minute, 13 second flight pattern moving 116 mph at an altitude of 400 feet. It flew six more similar flights the next day.

The CarterCopter has three patents pending and 11 approved, including a high-inertia rotor blade, rotor rpm control and stability, a high tail boom design that protects the prop tip in a wheels-up landing, and shock-absorbing landing gear. Company founder and president Jay Carter Jr., a private pilot since 1967, worked at Bell Helicopter before starting his own business, designing a steam-powered car and manufacturing and installing wind turbines.

Hybrid electric-petroleum vehicles

Hybrid New Flyer Metrobus

Hybrid Optare Solo

When the term hybrid vehicle is used, it most often refers to a Hybrid electric vehicle. These encompass such vehicles as the AHS2 (Chevrolet Tahoe, GMC Yukon, Chevrolet Silverado, Cadillac Escalade, and the Saturn Vue), Toyota Prius, Toyota Camry Hybrid, Ford Escape Hybrid, Toyota Highlander Hybrid, Honda Insight, Honda Civic Hybrid and others. A petroleum-electric hybrid most commonly uses internal combustion engines (generally gasoline or Diesel engines, powered by a variety of fuels) and electric batteries to power electric motors. There are many types of petroleum-electric hybrid drivetrains, from Full hybrid to Mild hybrid, which offer varying advantages and disadvantages.

While liquid fuel/electric hybrids date back to the late 1800s, the braking regenerative hybrid was invented by David Arthurs, an electrical engineer from Springdale, Arkansas in 1978–79. His home-converted Opel GT was reported to get as much as 75MPG and plans are still sold to this original design, and the "Mother Earth News" modified version on their website.

The plug-in-electric-vehicle (PEV) is becoming more and more common. It has the range needed in locations where there are wide gaps with no services. The batteries can be plugged in to house (mains) electricity for charging, as well being charged while the engine is running.

In addition to vehicles that use two or more different devices for propulsion, some also consider vehicles that use distinct energy sources or input types ("fuels") using the same engine to be hybrids, although to avoid confusion with hybrids as described above and to use correctly the terms, these are perhaps more correctly described as dual mode vehicles:

Some electric trolleybuses can switch between an on board diesel engine and overhead electrical power depending on conditions (see dual mode bus). In principle, this could be combined with a battery subsystem to create a true plug-in hybrid trolleybus, although as of 2006^[update], no such design seems to have been announced.
Flexible-fuel vehicles can use a mixture of input fuels mixed in one tank — typically gasoline and ethanol, or methanol, or biobutanol.
Bi-fuel vehicle:Liquified petroleum gas and natural gas are very different from petroleum or diesel and cannot be used in the same tanks, so it would be impossible to build an (LPG or NG) flexible fuel system. Instead vehicles are built with two, parallel, fuel systems feeding one engine. While the duplicated tanks cost space in some applications, the increased range and flexibility where (LPG or NG) infrastructure is incomplete may be a significant incentive to purchase.
Some vehicles have been modified to use another fuel source if it is available, such as cars modified to run on autogas (LPG) and diesels modified to run on waste vegetable oil that has not been processed into biodiesel.
Power-assist mechanisms for bicycles and other human-powered vehicles are also included (see Motorized bicycle).

Fluid power hybrid

Hydraulic and pneumatic hybrid vehicles use an engine to charge a pressure accumulator to drive the wheels via hydraulic or pneumatic (i.e. compressed air) drive units. The energy recovery rate is higher and therefore the system is more efficient than battery charged hybrids, demonstrating a 60% to 70% increase in energy economy in EPA testing . Under tests done by the EPA, a hydraulic hybrid Ford Expedition returned 32 miles per US gallon (7.4 L/100 km; 38 mpg_-imp) City, and 22 miles per US gallon (11 L/100 km; 26 mpg_-imp) highway. UPS currently has two trucks in service with this technology.

While the system has faster and more efficient charge/discharge cycling and is cheaper than gas-electric hybrids, the accumulator size dictates total energy storage capacity and requires more space than a battery.

Hybrid vehicle power train configuration

Parallel hybrid

The Honda Insight is a Mild Parallel Hybrid.

The Toyota Prius is a series-parallel hybrid.

The Ford Escape Hybrid has a parallel drivetrain.

In a parallel hybrid the electric motor and the internal combustion engine are installed so that they can both individually or together power the vehicle. In contrast to the power split configuration typically only one electric motor is installed. Most commonly the internal combustion engine, the electric motor and gear box are coupled by automatically controlled clutches. For electric driving the clutch between the internal combustion engine is open while the clutch to the gear box is engaged. While in combustion mode the engine and motor run at the same speed.

The first mass production parallel hybrid is the Honda Insight.

Mild parallel hybrid

This types use a generally compact electric motor to give extra output during the acceleration, and to generate on the deceleration phase.

On-road examples include Honda Civic Hybrid, Honda Insight, Mercedes Benz S400 BlueHYBRID, BMW 7-Series hybrids, and Smart fortwo with micro hybrid drive.

Power split hybrid

In a power split hybrid electric drive train there are always two electric motors and one internal combustion engine. Typical passenger car installations such as those from Toyota and Lexus. One motor mostly acts as a generator while the other one is used as a motor or generator. The two motors are connected through a planetary gear set.

The Toyota Prius, the Ford Escape and the Lexus Gs450 and LS600 are power split hybrids.

On the open road, the primary power source is the internal combustion engine (partly to maximise the life of the batteries), but when maximum power is required, for example to overtake, the electric motors are used to maximise the available power for a short time, giving the effect of having a larger engine than that actually installed.

Series hybrid

The Chevrolet Volt concept car is a series plug-in hybrid. The fuel engine power is exclusively used to generate electricity and not used directly for drive wheel propulsion.

A series hybrid uses an electric motor(s), which is powered by a single-speed internal combustion engine. While operating at its most efficient single speed, the combustion engine drives an electric generator instead of directly driving the wheels. This engine can do any combination of the following: charge a battery, charge a capacitor, directly power the electric motor. When large amounts of power and torque are required, the electric motor can draw electricity from a combination of batteries, capacitors, and the generator. A series hybrid does not require batteries in its design as a capacitor can act as a storage device.

There are three main options for series hybrid electric motors: Permanent Magnet, 3-Phase AC Induction, Multi-Phase AC Induction. Permament Magnet motors, like those found in the Prius, degrade in performance at higher temperatures and require a cooling system in the design. They allow for regenerative braking, and this comes with a safety trade off as any time there is motion by the magnets, they produce voltage. Permanent magnets also require rare earth which are expensive and difficult to source.

In contrast, 3-Phase AC Induction motors can be air cooled and therefore have better stamina, but have less power density which means that the weight saved from removing the cooling system is replaced with heavier and more complex gearing for the drivetrain. This more complex transmission gearing is also needed to compensate for the fact that a standard 3-Phase AC Induction motor can be either low-speed high-torque (like a standard vehicles starter) or a high-speed low-torque (like a standrd vehicles alternator) but not both.

A Multi-Phase AC Induction motor (called a Chorus Motor) co-opts the harmonics that limit motor performance, which means a that it can smoothly change from behaving like a high-torque low-speed motor to behaving like a low-torque high-speed motor, without the need for efficiency robbing physical gearing that would be required to compensate for a 3-Phase AC Induction motors lower power density. The January 2009 issue of Motor Trend magazine discusses this third choice and its use in planes and vehicles. Furthermore, by co-opting the harmonics that limit standard motor performance, greater torque can be generated by this motor; up to 10 times the torque of a standard motor. This extra torque can be generated for short 'burst' or 'startup' torque requirements, which means that the Chorus Motor used in a series hybrid can both be smaller and be sized for its 'average' torque requirements while still providing the acceleration torque needed for occasional circumstances like joining a highway from a dead stop. This motor is presently only being used in WheelTug and its use turns an airplane into a series hybrid with a turbine in the APU generating the electricity needed to power the Chorus Motor in the WheelTug

BYD Auto's F3DM sedan is the world's first mass-produced plug-in hybrid, which went on sale in China on December 15, 2008. It costs the equivalent of USD $16,062^[31] and has an all-electric range of 68.4 miles.The F3DM is set to debut in North America and Europe in 2011. Meanwhile, GM hopes to introduce the Chevy Volt by 2011, aiming for an all-electric range of 40 milesand a price tag of around $40,000.

A Honda Civic Hybrid used by Zipcar, a car sharing service at Washington, D.C.

Ford Escape plug-in hybrid.
Plug-in hybrid electrical vehicle (PHEV)

Another subtype added to the hybrid market is the Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV). The PHEV is usually a general fuel-electric (parallel or serial) hybrid with increased energy storage capacity (usually Li-ion batteries). It may be connected to mains electricity supply at the end of the journey to avoid charging using the on-board internal combustion engine.

This concept is attractive to those seeking to minimize on-road emissions by avoiding – or at least minimizing – the use of ICE during daily driving. As with pure electric vehicles, the total emissions saving, for example in CO2 terms, is dependent upon the energy source of the electricity generating company.

For some users, this type of vehicle may also be financially attractive so long as the electrical energy being used is cheaper than the petrol/diesel that they would have otherwise used. Current tax systems in many European countries use mineral oil taxation as a major income source. This is generally not the case for electricity, which is taxed uniformly for the domestic customer, however that person uses it. Some electricity suppliers also offer price benefits for off-peak night users, which may further increase the attractiveness of the plug-in option for commuters and urban motorists.